Notes

NOTES

Chapter 1: A Different Mirror

1. Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness in the Literary Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), p. 47. 2. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in The Early Writings of Frederick Jackson Turner (Madison, Wis., 1939), pp. 185-198. 3. Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations That Made the American People (New York, 1951), p. 3. 4. Nick to Grandpa Ron, e-mail, June 17, 2007. 5. Edward Fiske, "Lessons," New York Times, February 7, 1990; "University of Wisconsin-Madison: The Madison Plan," February 9, 1988; interview with Dean Fred Lukermann, University of Minnesota, 1987. 6. Walt Whitman, Preface, Leaves of Grass (New York, 1958), p. 453. 7. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York, 1995), p. 527; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (New York, 1965), p. v; Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can't Wait (New York, 1964), pp. 92-93. 8. Interview with old laundryman, in "Interviews with Two Chinese," circa 1924, Box 326, folder 325, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; Congressman Robert Matsui, speech in the House of Representatives on the 442 bill for redress and reparations, September 17, 1987, Congressional Record (Washington, D.C., 1987), p. 7584. 9. Lawrence J. McCaffrey, The Irish Diaspora in America (Washington, D.C., 1984), pp. 6, 62. 10. John Murry Cuddihy, The Ordeal of Civility: Freud, Marx, Levi Strauss, and the Jewish Struggle with Modernity (Boston, 1987), p. 165; Jonathan Kaufman, Broken Alliance: The Turbulent Times between Blacks and Jews in America (New York, 1989), pp. 28, 82, 83-84, 91, 93, 106. 11. Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican

Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979) p. 2; Juan Nepomuceno Seguin, in David J. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans (Albuquerque, N.M., 1973), p. vi; Jesus Garza, in Manuel Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant: His Life Story (Chicago, 1931), p. 15; "Immigration: Why Amnesty Makes Sense," Time, June 18, 2007, pp. 42, 39. 12. Nadeem Saaed, e-mail to Professor Takaki, September 11, 2007. 13. Omar Nourzaie, conversation in Fremont, California, June 23, 2007. 14. Andrew Jackson, Second Annual Message, James D. Richardson (ed.), A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (Washington, D.C., 1897), vol. 2, pp. 520-522; Luther Standing Bear, "What the Indian Means to America," in Wayne Moquin (ed.), Great Documents in American Indian History (New York, 1973), p. 307. 15. Jefferson to Monroe, November 24, 1801, in Paul L. Ford (ed.), The Works of Thomas Jefferson, 10 vols. (New York, 1892-1899), vol. 9, p. 317. 16. Whitman, Leaves of Grass, p. 284. 17. David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991) p. 137; Leon Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), p. 163. 18. Mathilde Bunton, "Negro Work Songs" (1940), 1 typescript in Box 91 ("Music"), Illinois Writers Project, U.S.W.P.A., in James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Sojourners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989), p. 192; Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (Baton Rouge, 1956), p. 39; Kazuo Ito, Issei: A History of Japanese Immigrants (Seattle, 1973), p. 343; Manuel Gamio, Mexican Immigration to the United States (Chicago, 1930), pp. 84-85. 19. Tomas Almaguer, "Racial Domination and Class Conflict in Capitalist Agriculture: The Oxnard Sugar Beet Workers' Strike of 1903," Labor History, vol. 25, no. 3 (Summer 1984), p. 347; Howard M. Sachar, A History of the Jews in America (New York, 1992), p. 183. 20. Takashi Tsutsumi, History of Hawaii Laborers' Movement (Honolulu, 1922), pp. 12, 44, 17, 13, 22. 21. Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue (New York, 1978), pp. 251,252, 254, 179-186; Raymond Wolters, Negroes and the Great Depression: The Problem of Economic Recovery (Westport, Conn., 1970), pp. 236-40, 258. 22. Ito, Issei, p. 497. 23. Arnold Schrier, Ireland and the American Emigration, 1850-1900 (New York, 1970), p. 24; "The Celestials at Home and Abroad," in Littel's Living Age, August 14, 1852, p. 294. 24. Ito, Issei, pp. 20, 33; Abraham Cahan, The Rise of David Levinsky

(New York, 1960, originally published in 1917), pp. 59-61; song, in Mark Slobin, Tenement Songs: The Popular Music of the Jewish Immigrants (Urbana, Ill., 1982), p. 155; Lawrence A. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897-1931 (Tucson, 1981), p. 80. 25. Abraham Lincoln, "First Inaugural Address," in The Annals of America, vol. 9, 1861-1865: The Crisis of the Union (Chicago, 1968), p. 255. 26. Donald, Lincoln, pp. 429-431. 27. Ibid. 28. Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York, 1979), p. 64. 29. Donald, Lincoln, pp. 526-527. 30. Abraham Lincoln, "The Gettysburg Address," in The Annals of America, pp. 462-463. 31. Pittsburgh Courier, January 31, 1942. 32. Andrew Lind, Hawaii's Japanese: An Experiment in Democracy (Princeton, 1946), p. 158. 33. Chester Tanaka, Go for Broke: A Pictorial History of the Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442d Regimental Combat Team (Richmond, California, 1982), p. 171. 34. Poem by Kiyoko Nieda, in Lucille Nixon and Tomoe Tana (eds. and trans.), Sounds from the Unknown: A Collection of Japanese American Tanka (Denver, 1963), p. 49. 35. Martin Luther King, Jr., "I Have a Dream," reprinted in Francis L. Broderick and August Meier (eds.), Negro Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1965), pp. 400-405. 36. Dionne Walker, "Mildred Loving-Challenged Marriage Ban," San Francisco Chronicle, May 6, 2008. 37. "Text of Reagan's Remarks," reprinted in Pacific Citizen, August 19-26, 1988, p. 5; San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 1988 and August 11, 1988. 38. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. vi; Hamilton Holt (ed.), The Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans As Told by Themselves (New York, 1906), p. 143. 39. Leslie Marmon Silko, Ceremony (New York, 1978), p. 2; Harriet A. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (Cambridge, Mass., 1987; originally published in 1857), p. xiii. 40. "Social Document of Pany Lowe, interviewed by C. H. Burnett, Seattle, July 5, 1924," p. 6, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; Minnie Miller, "Autobiography," private manuscript, copy from Richard Balkin; Torno Shoji, presentation, Oharra Cultural Center, Oakland, California, March 4, 1988; Keiko Teshirogi, poem, in Kazuo Ito, Issei (Seattle, 1973), p. 480. 41. Adrienne Rich, Blood, Bread, and Poetry: Selected Prose, 1979- 1985 (New York, 1986), p. 199; Audre Lorde, "Good Mirrors Are Not

Cheap," in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York, 1992), p. 192. 42. Ishmael Reed, "America: The Multinational Society," in Rick Simonson and Scott Walker (eds.), Multi-Cultural Literacy (St. Paul, 1988), p. 160. 43. Langston Hughes, in Hughes and Arna Bontemps (eds.), The Poetry of the Negro, 1746-1949 (Garden City, N.Y., 1951), p. 106. 44. John Locke, Of Civil Government: Second Treatise (rpt., Chicago, 1955), p. 19; F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby (New York, 1953), p.182. 45. Herman Melville, Redburn (Chicago, 1969), p. 169; also quoted in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York, 1992), pp. 116-117.

Part One: Foundations

1. "The Saga of the Greenlanders: Eirik the Red Takes Land in Iceland" and "The Saga ofEirik the Red: LeifEiriksson Discovers Vinland," in Vinland the Good: The Saga of Leif Eiriksson and the Viking Discovery of America, with a Preface by Helge Ingstad (Oslo, 1986). The Greenland saga was written down in the fourteenth century and the saga of Erik in the fifteenth century. 2. Vinland the Good, pp. 20, 26, 28. 3. Vinland the Good, pp. 65-66, 34, 71-72. The name "Skraelinger" was applied by the Norsemen to Indians in Vinland and may be related to the modern Norwegian term skraela, or "scream." See Gwyn Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, America (New York, 1964), pp. 59-60. My thanks to my former graduate student, Amy Lonetree, for informing me that they were Beothuk. 4. Vinland the Good, pp. 66, 68, 36, 69. 5. Christopher Columbus, Journal, October 21 and 23, 1492, in Samuel Eliot Morison (ed.), Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (New York, 1963), pp. 78, 79.

Chapter 2: The "Tempest" in the Wilderness

1. John Winthrop, Winthrop Papers, vol. 2 (1623-1630), Massachusetts Historical Society (1931), p. 139; Perry Miller, "Errand into the Wilderness," in Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (New York, 1964), pp. 1-15; Miller's metaphor and theme originally came from Samuel Danforth's sermon, delivered on May 11, 1670, entitled, "A Brief Recognition of New England's Errand into the Wilderness"; John Winthrop, "A Model of Christian Charity," in Perry Miller (ed.), The American Puritans: Their Prose and Poetry (New York, 1956), pp. 79-84.

2. Frank G. Speck, "Penobscot Tales and Religious Beliefs," Journal of American Folklore, vol. 48, no. 187 (January-March, 1915), p. 19; William Wood, quoted in William S. Simmons, Spirit of New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore, 1620-1984 (Hanover, N.H., 1986), p. 66; Edward Johnson, Wonder-working Providence, 1628-1651, edited by F. Franklin Jameson (New York, 1910, originally published in 1654), p. 39; Colin G. Calloway (ed.), Dawnland Encounters: Indians and Europeans in Northern New England (Hanover, N.H., 1991), pp. 30, 50; Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America (Detroit, 1973), p. 191. See also James Axtell, "Through Another Glass Darkly: Early Indian Views of Europeans," in Axtell, After Columbus: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York, 1988), pp. 125-143. 3. Simmons, Spirit of New England Tribes, pp. 71, 72; Axtell, After Columbus, p. 129; James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York, 1985), p. 8. 4. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. by Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. Lamar (New York, 1971), p. 81. The Tempest has recently been swept into the storm over "political correctness." In Newsweek on April 15, 1991, George Will issued a scathing attack on "left" scholars and their "perverse" "liberation" of literature, especially their interpretation of this play as a reflection of "the imperialist rape of the Third World." Shakespeare specialist Stephen Greenblatt responded: "This is a curious example since it is very difficult to argue that The Tempest is not about imperialism." Such an authoritative counter-statement clears the way for a study of this story in relationship to its historical setting. See George Will, "Literary Politics: 'The Tempest'? It's 'really' about imperialism. Emily Dickinson's poetry? Masturbation," Newsweek, April 15, 1991, p. 72, and Stephen Greenblatt, "The Best Way to Kill Our Literary Inheritance Is to Turn It into a Decorous Celebration of the New World Order," Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 37, no. 39 (June 12, 1991), p. Bl, 3. As Adam Begley has noted, Stanley Fish reminds us that "the circumstances of an utterance determine its meaning." See Begley, "Souped-Up Scholar," New York Times Magazine, May 3, 1992, p. 52. My appreciation to Frederick E. Hoxie and David Thelen for helping me develop the critical contours of my analysis. 5. Winthrop Jordan chose Othello for his play in White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1968), pp. 37-40. Othello was first performed in 1604, before the founding of Jamestown. Jordan overlooked the rich possibility of studying The Tempest. 6. Nicholas P. Canny, "The Ideology of English Colonization: From Ireland to America," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, vol. 30, no. 4 (October 1973), p. 585; David B. Quinn, The Elizabethans and the Irish (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), p. 161; Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York, 1976), p. 7.

In White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American & South African History (New York, 1971), George Frederickson describes the conquest of Ireland as a "rehearsal," p. 13. 7. Canny, "Ideology," pp. 585, 588; Howard Mumford Jones, 0 Strange New World: American Culture, the Formative Years (New York, 1965), p. 169; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: A History of the Modern Sensibility (New York, 1983), p. 42; Jennings, Invasion of America, pp. 46, 49; James Muldoon, "The Indian as Irishman," Essex Institute Historical Collections, vol. 111 (October 1975), p. 269; Quinn, Elizabethans and the Irish, p. 76. 8. Muldoon, "Indian as Irishman," p. 284; Quinn, Elizabethans and the Irish, p. 108. 9. Canny, "Ideology," pp. 593, 582; Jennings, Invasion of America, p. 153; Frederickson, White Supremacy, p. 15. 10. Canny, "Ideology," p. 582; Jennings, Invasion of America, p. 168; Quinn, Elizabethans and the Irish, p. 44. 11. Quinn, Elizabethans and the Irish, pp. 132-133. 12. Quinn, Elizabethans and the Irish, p. 121; William Christie MacLeod, "Celt and Indian: Britain's Old World Frontier in Relation to the New," in Paul Bohannan and Fred Plog (eds.), Beyond the Frontier: Social Process and Cultural Change (Garden City, N.Y., 1967), pp. 38- 39; Jennings, Invasion of America, p. 312. 13. Quinn, Elizabethans and the Irish, p. 121; Muldoon, "Indian as Irishman," p. 270; MacLeod, "Celt and Indian," p. 26; see also Canny, "Ideology," p. 576. 14. Shakespeare, Tempest, pp. 13, 81; Frank Kermode, "Introduction," The Tempest, The Arden Edition of the Works of William Shakespeare (London, 1969), p. xxvii; Robert R. Cawley, "Shakespeare's Use of the Voyagers in The Tempest," Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, vol. 41, no. 3 (September 1926), pp. 699-700, 689; Frederickson, White Supremacy, p. 22. See also Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York, 1964), pp. 34-75. 15. Shakespeare, Tempest, pp. 27-28, 31; Cawley, "Shakespeare's Use," pp. 702, 703, 704; Kirkpatrick Sale, The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy (New York, 1990), p. 102. For analysis of America imaged as a woman, see Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989), p. 101; Annette Kolodny, The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1975). 16. Shakespeare, Tempest, p. xxxviii; Kermode (ed.), introduction, Tempest, p. xxiv. For anagram of Hamlet, see dedication to William Shakespeare at Kronborg Castle, Denmark. 17. Christopher Columbus, Journal, November 12, 1492, in Samuel Eliot

Morison (ed.), Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (New York, 1963), p. 126; Sale, Conquest of Paradise, p. 126; Guillermo Coma to the Duke of Milan, December 13, 1494, in Morison (ed.), Journals of Columbus, 238; Cuneo to Lord Hieronymo Annari, October 15, 1495, in Morison (ed.), Journals of Columbus, pp. 226-227. 18. Kenneth M. Morrison, The Embattled Northeast: The Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations (Berkeley, Calif., 1984), pp. 22-23; Leonard A. Adolf, "Squanto's Role in Pilgrim Diplomacy," Ethnohistory, vol. 11, no. 4 (fall 1964), pp. 247-248; Cawley, "Shakespeare's Use," pp. 720, 721; Shakespeare, Tempest, pp. 41, 40; Kermode (ed.), text explanation, Tempest, p. 62. 19. William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation: 1620-1647 (New York, 1967), p. 26; Frederickson, White Supremacy, p. 11; Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore, 1967), p. 12; Colin G. Calloway (ed.), Dawnland Encounters: Indians and Europeans in Northern New England (Hanover, N.H., 1991), p. 33. 20. Washburn (ed.), Indian and White Man, pp. 4, 5, 7. 21. Shakespeare, Tempest, p. 19; Cawley, "Shakespeare's Use," p. 715; Frederickson, White Supremacy, p. 12; Pearce, Savagism and Civilization, pp. 9, 10. 22. Axtell, After Columbus, p. 190; Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture (Norman, Okla., 1990), pp.44,45,46,49,60,63. 23. Mortimer J. Adler (ed.), Annals of America, vol. 1, Discovering a New World (Chicago, 1968), pp. 21, 26, 22. 24. Gary Nash, Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1974), p. 58; Adler (ed.), Annals of America, vol. 1, p. 26. 25. Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana, books 1 and 2 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), p. 116; Frederickson, White Supremacy, p. 24; Sale, Conquest of Paradise, p. 277. 26. Jennings, Invasion of America, p. 66; Nash, Red, White, and Black, p. 57. 27. Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, p. 22; Shakespeare, Tempest, pp. 29, 80, 52; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, p. 42; Cawley, "Shakespeare's Use," p. 715. 28. Jennings, Invasion of America, pp. 78, 80; Sale, Conquest of Paradise, p. 295; Nash, Red, White, and Black, pp. 62, 63; Sale, Conquest of Paradise, pp. 293,294; Jennings, Invasion of America, p. 153. 29. Shakespeare, Tempest, pp. 70, 15-16, 18, 19, 29, 50; Kermode (ed.), text explanation, Tempest, p. 63. 30. Howard S. Russell, Indian New England Before the Mayflower (Hanover, N.H., 1980), p. 11; John Smith, "A Description of New England," in Adler (ed.), Annals of America, vol. 1, p. 39.

31. Eva L. Butler, "Algonkian Culture and the Use of Maize in Southern New England," Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Connecticut, no. 22 (December 1948), p. 6; Speck, "Penobscot Tales and Religious Beliefs," Journal of American Folklore, vol. 48, no. 187 (January-March 1915), p. 75; Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, p. 72. 32. Russell, Indian New England, pp. 10, 11, 166; Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, p. 80; Peter A. Thomas, "Contrastive Subsistence Strategies and Land Use as Factors for Understanding Indian-White Relations in New England," Ethnohistory, vol. 23, no. 1 (winter 1976), p. 10; Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America (Detroit, 1973), p. 170; Eva L. Butler, "Algonkian Culture," pp. 15, 17. For a study of the Abenakis as hunters, see Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, pp. 29-68. 33. Thomas, "Contrastive Subsistence Strategies and Land Use," p. 4. 34. Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, pp. 270-271; Alfred W. Crosby, "Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America," William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 2 ( April 1976), p. 289; Dean R. Snow, "Abenaki Fur Trade in the Sixteenth Century," Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, vol. 6, no. 1 (1976), p. 8; Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, p. 90. 35. Roy Harvey Pearce, "The 'Ruines of Mankind': The Indian and the Puritan Mind," Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 13 (1952), p. 201; Peter Carroll, Puritanism and the Wilderness: The Intellectual Significance of the Frontier, 1629-1700 (New York, 1969), p. 13; Johnson, Wonder-working Providence, p. 40. 36. Cronon, Changes in the Land, p. 90; Alfred W. Crosby, "God ... Would Destroy Them, and Give Their Country to Another People," American Heritage, vol. 29, no. 6 (October-November 1978), p. 40; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, pp. 65-66. 37. Johnson, Wonder-working Providence, p. 262; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983), pp. 55, 56; William Wood, New England's Prospect, ed. by Alden T. Vaughn (Amherst, Mass., 1977), p. 96. 38. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York, 1998), pp. xii, xvi. 39. Charles M. Segal and David C. Stineback (eds.), Puritans, Indians & Manifest Destiny (New York, 1977), pp. 136-137, 111; Sherburne F. Cook, "Interracial Warfare and Population Decline among the New England Indians," Ethnohistory, vol. 20 (winter 1973), pp. 19-21; Simmons, "Cultural Bias," p. 67; Segal and Stineback (eds.), Puritans, Indians & Manifest Destiny, p. 182. 40. Kai Erikson, Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance (New York, 1966), pp. 13, 64; see also Pearce, Savagism and Civilization, p. 8. 41. Cotton Mather, On Witchcraft: Being, The Wonders of the Invisible World (New York, n.d.; originally published in 1692), p. 53; Simmons, "Cultural Bias," p. 71.

42. Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1973), pp. 132, 142, 65. 43. Johnson, Wonder-working Providence, p. 263; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, p. 205. 44. Johnson, Wonder-working Providence, pp. 71, 168, 211, 247-248; see Cronon, Changes in the Land, pp.166-167. 45. My thanks to David R. Ford for pointing out the complexity of Rowlandson's narrative. David R. Ford, "Mary Rowlandson's Captivity Narrative: A Paradigm of Puritan Representations of Native Americans?" Ethnic Studies 299 paper, fall 1996, University of California, Berkeley. 46. Axtell, Invasion Within, p. 167. 47. Thomas Jefferson to Brother John Baptist de Coigne, chief of Kaskaskia, June 1781, and to John Page, August 5, 1776, in Andrew A. Lipscomb and Albert E. Bergh (eds.), Writings of Thomas Jefferson, 20 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1904), vol. 16, p. 372; vol. 4, pp. 270-271. 48. Jefferson to chiefs of the Shawnee Nation, February 19, 1807, in Lipscomb and Bergh (eds.), Writings of Jefferson, vol. 16, p. 424. 49. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (New York, 1964, written in 1781), p. 91. 50. Jefferson to chiefs of the Upper Cherokees, May 4, 1808, in Lipscomb and Bergh (eds.), Writings of Jefferson, vol. 16, p. 434; Jefferson to John Baptist de Coigne, June 1781, in Julian Boyd (ed.), The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 18 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1950-1965), vol. 6, pp. 60-63; Jefferson to Choctaw Nation, December 17, 1803, and to chiefs of the Ottawas, Chippewas, Powtewatamies, Wyandots, and Senecas of Sandusky, April 22, 1808, in Lipscomb and Bergh (eds.), Writings of Jef ferson, vol. 16, pp. 401, 429. 51. Jefferson, "Confidential Message Recommending a Western Exploring Expedition," January 18, 1803, in Lipscomb and Bergh (eds.), Writings of Jefferson, vol. 3, pp. 489-490; Jefferson to Governor William H. Harrison, February 27, 1803, in Lipscomb and Bergh (eds.), Writings of Jefferson, vol. 10, pp. 370-373; Jefferson to John Adams, June 11, 1812, in Lester J. Cappon (ed.), The Adams-Jefferson Letters, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1959), vol. 2, pp. 307-308. 52. Jefferson to William Ludlow, September 6, 1824, in Lipscomb and Bergh (eds.), Writings of Jefferson, vol. 16, pp. 74-75.

Chapter 3: The Hidden Origins of Slavery

1. William Shakespeare, The Tempest (New York, 1971), p. 15. 2. Winthrop Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1968), pp. 4-7. Jordan's study is monumental, truly a classic.

3. Jordan, White Over Black, p. 15. 4. Shakespeare, Tempest, p. 19; Jordan, White Over Black, pp. 24, 25. 5. Shakespeare, Tempest, pp. 85, 62, 18, 19. 6. Jordan, White Over Black, p. 579. 7. Shakespeare, Tempest, p. 15. 8. Jordan, White Over Black, p. 73. 9. Olaudah Equiano, "Early Travels of Olaudah Equiano," in Philip D. Curtain, Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison, Wis., 1968), pp. 92-97. 10. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1975), p. 154. This is the most important study of class and race relations in early Virginia. 11. Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607-1776 (Gloucester, Mass., 1965), p. 29. 12. T. H. Breen and Stephen Innes, "Myne Owne Grounde": Race and Freedom on Virginia's Eastern Shore, 1640-1676 (New York, 1980), p. 59; Colonists in Bondage, pp. 4, 13. 13. Smith, Colonists in Bondage, pp. 3, 45. 14. Smith, Colonists in Bondage, pp. 68-69, 163, 166-167; Marcus W. Jernegan, Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America, 1607- 1783 (New York, 1960), p. 50. 15. Smith, Colonists in Bondage, pp. 256, 253. 16. William W. Hening, The Statutes at Large: Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia, 13 vols. (Richmond, Va., 1809-23), vol. 2, p. 26; Helen Catterall (ed.), Judicial Cases concerning American Slavery and the Negro, vol. 1, Cases from the Courts of England, Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky (New York, 1968), p. 80. 17. Catterall, Judicial Cases, pp. 77, 78; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, pp. 155, 336; Winthrop Jordan, "Modern Tensions and the Origins of American Slavery," Journal of Southern History, vol. 28, no. 1 (February 1962), p. 28; Breen and Innes, "Myne Owne Grounde," p. 96. 18. Hening, Statutes, vol. 1, p. 226; Breen and Innes, "Myne Owne Grounde," pp. 25, 29; Catterall, Judicial Cases, p. 77. 19. "Inventory of the goods Cattle and Chattles of and belonging unto the estate of Mr. William Burdett," November 13, 1643, reprinted in Susie M. Ames (ed.), County Court Records of Accomack-Northampton, Virginia, 1640-1645 (Charlottesville, Va., 1973), pp. 419-425. 20. Ames (ed.), Court Records, pp. 324, 255, 433-434; Jordan, White Over Black, p. 75; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, p. 154; Carl Degler, Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America (New York, 1962), p. 34; Alden T. Vaughan, "The Origins Debate: Slavery and Racism in Seventeenth-Century Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 97, no. 3 (July 1989), p. 354. 21. Hening, Statutes, vol. 2, pp. 26,270.

22. Russell Menard, "From Servants to Slaves: The Transformation of the Chesapeake Labor System," Southern Studies, vol. 5 (winter 1977), p. 363; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, p. 299. 23. Shakespeare, The Tempest, pp. 44, 45, 52, 54, 55, 68, 73. 24. T. H. Breen, "A Changing Labor Force and Race Relations in Viriginia, 1660-1710," Journal of Social History, vol. 7 (fall 1973), p. 4. 25. Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, pp. 215-220. 26. Breen, "Changing Labor Force," pp. 3, 8, 9; Breen and Innes, "Myne Owne Grounde," p. 60; Smith, Colonists in Bondage, p. 138. The House of Burgesses used the term "giddy multitude" to describe the followers of Nathaniel Bacon. H. R. Mcllwaine (ed.), Journals of the House of Burgesses of Virginia, 1659/60-1693 (Richmond, Va., 1914). See Breen, "Changing Labor Force," p. 18. 27. Breen, "Changing Labor Force," pp. 3-4; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, pp. 241-242. 28. Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, pp. 257, 258, 260. 29. Breen, "Changing Labor Force," p. 10. 30. Breen, "Changing Labor Force," p. 11. 31. Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, p. 308; Breen, "Changing Labor Force," p. 12. Morgan is reluctant to press his analysis as far as I do. "The substitution of slaves for servants gradually eased and eventually ended the threat that the freedmen posed," he wrote. "As the annual number of imported servants dropped, so did the number of men turning free .... Planters who bought slaves instead of servants did not do so with any apparent consciousness of the social stability to be gained thereby." Perhaps not, but perhaps they did, though not "apparently." See Theodore Allen,"' ... They Would Have Destroyed Me': Slavery and the Origins of Racism," Radical America, vol. 9, no. 3 (May:-June 1975), pp. 41-63, which I read after completing my analysis of Bacon's Rebellion, for an argument that the planters acted deliberately and consciously. 32. Darrett B. and Anita H. Rutman, A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650-1750 (New York, 1984), p. 165; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, p. 306. 33. Breen, "Changing Labor Force," pp. 16, 17; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, pp. 404,423; Degler, Out of Our Past, p. 27; Russell Menard, "From Servants to Slaves: The Transformation of the Chesapeake Labor System," Southern Studies, vol. 5 (winter 1977), p. 370; Hening, Statutes, vol. 3, pp. 447-478. 34. Hening, Statutes, vol. 2, pp. 481, 493. 35. Allen, '"They Would Have Destroyed Me,"' p. 55; Hening, Statutes, vol. 3, pp. 86-87; Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom, pp. 333, 335-357. 36. The subheading comes from Winthrop Jordan's magisterial book, White Over Black; Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (New York, 1861), p. 167; Jefferson to John Jordan, December 21, 1805, and Jefferson

to W. Eppes, June 30, 1820, in Edwin M. Betts (ed.), Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book (Princeton, N.J., 1953), pp. 21, 43. 37. Jefferson to Daniel Bradley, October 6, 1805, and Jefferson to Thomas M. Randolph, June 8, 1803, in Betts, Jefferson's Farm Book, pp. 21, 19. 38. Jefferson to Edward Coles, August 25, 1814, in Paul L. Ford (ed.), The Works of Thomas Jefferson, 20 vols. (New York, 1892-99), vol. 11, p. 416; Jefferson, Notes, p. 132; Jefferson to Brissot de Warville, February 11, 1788, in Julian Boyd (ed.), The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 18 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1950-65), vol. 12, pp. 577-578. 39. Jefferson to Francis Eppes, July 30, 1787, in Boyd (ed.), Papers, vol. 10, p. 653; Jefferson to Nicholas Lewis, July 29, 1787, in Boyd (ed.), Papers, vol. 10, p. 640. 40. Jefferson, Notes, p. 155. 41. Jefferson, Notes, pp. 85-86; Jefferson to John Holmes, April 22, 1820, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 12, p. 334. 42. Jefferson to Jared Sparks, February 4, 1824, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 13, p. 159. 43. Jefferson, Notes, pp. 127, 138. 44. Jordan, White Over Black, pp. 283-284; Phillis Wheatley, The Poems of Phillis Wheatley, edited by Julian Mason (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966), pp. 7, 34. 45. Jordan, White Over Black, p. 437; Jefferson, Notes, p. 135. 46. Banneker to Jefferson, August 19, 1791, reprinted in George Ducas, with Charles Van Doren (eds.), Great Documents in Black American History (New York, 1970), pp. 23-26. 47. Banneker to Jefferson. 48. Jefferson to Banneker, August 30, 1791, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 6, pp. 309-310; Jefferson to Joel Harlow, October 8, 1809, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 11, p. 121. 49. Shakespeare, The Tempest, p. 70; Jefferson, Notes, pp. 137-141. 50. Jefferson, Notes, pp. 138-139, 127; Jefferson to Edward Coles, August 25, 1814, in Ford, Works, vol. 11, pp. 417-418. 51. Callender, in Richmond Recorder, September 1, 1802, quoted in Fawn Brodie, Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History (New York, 1974), p. 349; Richmond Examiner, September 18, 25, 1802. 52. Boston Gazette, reprinted in Richmond Recorder, December 1, 1802, quoted in Jordan, White Over Black, p. 468. 53. Boston Gazette, reprinted in New York Evening Post, December 8, 1802. 54. Jefferson to James Madison, May 29, 1801, in W. C. Ford, "Thomas Jefferson and James Thomson Callener," New England Historical and Genealogical Register (1896-97), vol. 2, p. 157; Thomas J. Randolph, in appendix, Milton E. Flower, James Parton: The Father of Modern Biography (Durham, N.C., 1951), pp. 236-239.

55. Brodie, Jefferson, p. 216. 56. "Jefferson's Other Family," Newsweek, February 7, 2000, p. 57; "Reminiscences of Madison Hemings," published as "Life Among the Lowly, No. 1," Pike County (Ohio) Republican, March 13, 1873, reprinted in appendix, Brodie, Jefferson, pp. 272-273; "Jefferson Fathered Slave's Last Child," Nature 196 (November 5, 1998), pp. 27-28; see also Ronald Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in 19th-Century America (New York, 1979), pp. 42-55. My thanks to Ted Fang, "Jeffersonian Rites," paper for Ethnic Studies 250, University of California, Berkeley, 2002. His research restirred my interest in the controversy over Jefferson and Hemings. 57. Jefferson, Notes, pp. 132-133. 58. Jefferson to James Monroe, July 14, 1793, and Jefferson to St. George Tucker, August 28, 1797, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 7, pp. 449- 459; vol. 8, p. 335; Jefferson to James Monroe, September 20, 1800, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 9, p. 147; Jefferson to William Burwell, January 28, 1805, in Betts (ed.), Jefferson's Farm Book, p. 20. 59. Jefferson to John Holmes, April 22, 1820, in Ford (ed.), Works, vol. 13, p. 159. 60. Shakespeare, The Tempest, p. 78.

Part Two: Contradictions

1. Douglass C. North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 1790-1860 (New York, 1966). 2. See George R. Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815-1860 (New York, 1962). 3. North, Economic Growth, pp. 136, 141, 151, 129. 4. North, Economic Growth, pp. 59, 250, 233, 257, 262,124, 256, 257, 232,233.

Chapter 4: Toward "the Stony Mountains"

1. Jefferson to Andrew Jackson, February 16, 1803, in Andrew A. Lipscomb and Albert E. Bergh (eds.), Writings of Thomas Jefferson, 20 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1904), vol. 10, pp. 357-359. The title for this subchapter challenges John William Ward, Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age (New York, 1955). Jackson was also the symbol of destruction and death for Native Americans. 2. Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York, 1975), pp. 140-141. 3. Jackson to Thomas Pinckney, February 16 and 17, 1814, May 18, 1814, in John Spencer Bassett (ed.), Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 6 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1926), vol. 1, pp. 463-465, vol. 2, pp. 2-3; Jackson to Mrs. Jackson, April 1, 1814, in Bassett (ed.), Correspondence, vol. 1, p. 493.

4. Jackson, Proclamation, April 2, 1814, Fort Williams, in Bassett (ed.), Correspondence, vol. 1, p. 494. 5. Jackson, Special Message to the Senate, February 22, 1831, in James D. Richardson (ed.), A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (Washington, D.C., 1897), vol. 2, p. 541; Ragin, Fathers and Children, p. 213. 6. Mary E. Young, "Indian Removal and Land Allotment: The Civilized Tribes and Jacksonian Justice," American Historical Review, vol. 64 (October 1958), p. 36. 7. Jackson, speech to the Chickasaws; Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress, in Richardson (ed.), Papers of the Presidents, vol. 2, pp. 241, 456-458. 8. Jackson to Captain James Gadsden, October 12, 1829, in Bassett (ed.), Correspondence, vol. 4, p. 81; Jackson to Major David Haley, October 15, 1829, quoted in Annie Heloise Abel, The History of Events Resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi (Washington, D.C., 1906), p. 373; Jackson, speech to Chickasaws, Special Message to Senate, in Richardson (ed.), Papers of the Presidents, vol. 2, pp. 241,541. 9. Jackson, Proclamation, April 2, 1814, Fort Williams, in Bassett (ed.), Correspondence, vol. 1, p. 494; Jackson, Second Annual Message, in Richardson (ed.), Papers of the Presidents, vol. 2, pp. 520-522. 10. Ragin, Fathers and Children, p. 231. 11. F. P. Prucha, "Introduction," in D.S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands (Norman, Okla., 1973), p. ix. 12. T. N. Campbell, "Choctaw Subsistence: Ethnographic Notes from the Lincecum Manuscript," Florida Anthropologist, vol. 12 (1959), pp. 16-19; John R. Swanton (ed.), "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 5 (April- June 1918), pp. 58-59. 13. Richard White, Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983), pp. 41, 42. 14. White, Roots of Dependency, pp. 102, 133-135. 15. Arthur H. DeRosier, Jr., The Removal of Choctaw Indians (New York, 1972), pp. 104, 126, 122; White, Roots of Dependency, p. 143. 16. DeRosier, Removal of Choctaw Indians, p. 128; Angie Debo, The Rise and Fall of the Choctaw Republic (Norman, Okla., 1934), p. 70. 17. DeRosier, Removal of Choctaw Indians, p. 124. 18. Grant Foreman, Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (Norman, Okla., 1972), p. 73. 19. Ragin, Fathers and Children, p. 230; Jackson to General John Coffee, April 7, 1832, in Bassett (ed.), Correspondence, vol. 4, p. 430. 20. Foreman, Indian Removal, pp. 56, 64, 98. 21. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2 vols. (New York, 1945), vol. 1, pp. 352-353, 364.

22. Debo, Choctaw Republic (Norman, Okla., 1972), p. 56; Wayne Moquin (ed.), Great Documents in American Indian History (New York, 1973), pp. 151-153. 23. DeRosier, Removal of Choctaw Indians, p. 163. 24. James Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee, published in United States Bureau of Ethnology, Nineteenth Annual Report, 1897-98 (Washington, D.C., 1900), pp. 239-240. 25. Foreman, Indian Removal, p. 229. 26. John Ross to General Council, July 10-16, 1830, in Gary E. Moulton (ed.), The Papers of Chief John Ross, 2 vols. (Norman, Okla., 1985), vol. 1, p. 190; Ross, "To the Cherokees," April 14, 1831, in Moulton (ed.), Papers of Ross, vol. 1, p. 218; Ross to Cass, February 6, 1834, in Moulton (ed.), Papers of Ross, vol. 1, p. 275; Ross to Jackson, March 12, 1834, in Moulton (ed.), Papers of Ross, vol. 1, p. 277. 27. Ragin, Fathers and Children, p. 227; Ross, "Annual Message," October 12, 1835, in Moulton (ed.), Papers of Ross, vol. 1, p. 358. 28. Ross, "To the Senate," March 8, 1836, in Moulton (ed.), Papers of Ross, vol. 1, p. 394; Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee, p. 126-127. 29. Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee, p. 127. 30. Foreman, Indian Removal, p. 283. 31. Foreman, Indian Removal, pp. 286-288. 32. George Hicks to John Ross, November 4, 1838, in Moulton (ed.), Papers of Ross, vol. 1, p. 687. 33. Foreman, Indian Removal, pp. 309, 296; Thurman Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy: The Story of the Ridge Family and of the Decimation of a People (New York, 1970), p. 314. 34. Gloria Levitas, Frank Vivelo, and Jacquelien Vivelo (eds.), American Indian Prose and Poetry (New York, 1974), p. 180; Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, p. 314. 35. George A. Dorsey, The Pawnee Mythology (Washington, D.C., 1906), pp. 21-28. 36. Frances Densmore, Pawnee Music, in Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 93 (Washington, D.C., 1929), p. 32; Gene Weltfish, The Lost Universe (New York, 1965), p. 203; Dorsey, Pawnee Mythology, p. 213. 37. Martha Royce Blaine, Pawnee Passage: 1870-1875 (Norman, Okla., 1990), p. 81. 38. David J. Wishart, "The Dispossession of the Pawnee," in Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 69, no. 3 (September

1979), p. 386; John B. Dunbar, "The Pawnee Indians: Their Habits and Customs," Magazine of American History, vol. 5, no. 5 (November 1880), pp. 327-328, 331; White, Roots of Dependency, p. 188. 39. Levitas et al. (eds.), American Indian Prose and Poetry, p. 41; John B. Dunbar, "The Pawnee Indians: Their History and Ethnology," Magazine of American History, vol. 4, no. 4 (April 1880), p. 275; James R.

Murie, Ceremonies of the Pawnee, in Douglas R. Parks (ed.), Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, no. 27 (Washington, D.C., 1981), pp. 80-82. 40. Dunbar, "Pawnee Indians," p. 276. 41. White, Roots of Dependency, pp. 191-192; Wishart, "Dispossession of the Pawnee," p. 387. 42. Jackson, Third Annual Message to Congress, 1831, in Richardson (ed.), Papers of the Presidents, vol. 2, p. 545. 43. "The Spirit of the Times; or the Fast Age," Democratic Review, vol. 33 (September 1853), pp. 260-261. 44. Alfred L. Riggs, "What Shall We Do with the Indians?" The Nation, vol. 67 (October 31, 1867), p. 356. 45. Ulysses S. Grant, First Annual Message, 1869, in Richardson (ed.), Papers of the Presidents, vol. 9, p. 3993. 46. Robert G. Athearn, William Tecumseh Sherman and the Settlement of the West (Norman, Okla., 1956), pp. 324-325. 47. Francis Amasa Walker, The Indian Question (Boston, 1874), p. 5; Ira G. Clark, Then Came the Railroads: The Century from Steam to Diesel in the Southwest (Norman, Okla., 1958), pp. 121, 128. 48. Levitas et al. (eds.), American Indian Prose and Poetry, p. 229. 49. Wishart, "Dispossession of the Pawnee," p. 392. 50. White, Roots of Dependency, p. 201; Blaine, Pawnee Passage, p. 215; Dunbar, "Pawnee Indians," p. 251; Weltfish, Lost Universe, p. 4. 51. Densmore, Pawnee Music, p. 90; White, Roots of Dependency, p. 210; Blaine, Pawnee Passage, p. 143; Peter Nabokov (ed.), Native American Testimony: A Chronicle of Indian-White Relations from Prophecy to the Present, 1492-1992 (New York, 1991), p. 40. 52. E. L. Sabin, Building the Pacific Railway (Philadelphia, 1919), p. 233.

Chapter 5: "No More Peck o' Corn"

1. James Madison, quoted in Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York, 1975), p. 319.

2. David Walker, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (New York, 1965; originally published in 1829), pp. 72, 93, 34. 3. Leon Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790- 1860 (Chicago, 1965), p. 234; William Chambers, Things as They Are in America (Philadelphia, 1854), p. 354. Litwack's study is the standard work on this subject. 4. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2 vols. (New York, 1945; originally published in 1835), vol. 1, pp. 373-374. 5. Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 120. 6. Robert A. Warner, New Haven Negroes: A Social History (New

Haven, Conn., 1940), p. 34; Tocqueville, Democracy, vol. 1, p. 373; Litwack, North of Slavery, pp. 66, 98, 155-156; Frank U. Quillan, The Color Line in Ohio: A History of Race Prejudice in a Typical Northern State (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1913), p. 55; Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (Dallas, 1963), p. 74. 7. Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 164; Richmond Jeffersonian, in Emma Lou Thornbrough, The Negro in Indiana: A Study of a Minority (n.p., 1957), p. 62. 8. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. I, p. 373; Eugene H. Berwanger, The Frontier against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy (Urbana, Ill., 1967), pp. 20, 36; Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 77. 9. Thornbrough, Negro in Indiana, p. 163; Litwack, North of Slavery, pp. 149-150. 10. Litwack, North of Slavery, pp. 153-154. 11. Kenneth Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South (New York, 1956), p. 44; Frederick Law Olmsted, The Slave States (New York, 1959; originally published as A Journey in the Back Country in 1860), pp. 176-177. Stampp's study is essential for an understanding of the institution of slavery. 12. Stampp, Peculiar Institution, pp. 44, 74. 13. Stampp, Peculiar Institution, pp. 163, 146. 14. George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South, in Harvey Wish (ed.), Antebellum: Writings of George Fitzhugh and Hinton Rowan Helper on Slavery (New York, 1960), pp. 88, 89; Bertram W. Doyle, Etiquette of Race Relations in the South (Chicago, 1931), p. 54. 15. John Hope Franklin, "The Enslavement of Free Negroes in North Carolina," Journal of Negro History, vol. 29 (October 1944), p. 405; William Gilmore Simms, The Yamassee (New York, 1962), p. 392. 16. Edward Pollard, Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey Homes of the South (New York, 1859), pp. 57-58; Benjamin F. Perry, in Lillian Kibler, Benjamin F. Perry: South Carolina Unionist (Durham, N.C., 1946), p. 282; Natchez Free Trader, September 20, 1858; Gustave A. Breaux, Diary, January 1, 1859, Breaux Papers, Tulane University Library, New Orleans, Louisiana. 17. J. J. Pettigrew, in De Bow's Review, vol. 25 (September 1858), p. 293; Roger Pryor, in De Bow's Review, vol. 24 (June 1858), p. 582; Galveston News, December 6, 1856; Charleston Mercury, October 20, 1858; J. G. M. Ramsey to L. W. Spratt, April 23, 1858, Ramsey Papers, University of North Carolina Library. 18. Percy Lee Rainwater, Mississippi, Storm Center of Secession, 1856- 1861 (Baton Rouge, La., 1938), p. 12; Charles G. Sellers, Jr., The Southerner as American (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1960), p. 48; Ernest T. Thompson, Presbyterians in the South, 1607-1861 (Richmond, 1963), p. 533; Galveston News, December 5, 1856.

19. De Row's Review, vol. 14 (1853), p. 276, italics added; William W. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816-1832 (New York, 1966), p. 59. 20. Fredericka Bremer, The Homes of the New World: Impressions of America, 3 vols. (London, 1853), vol. 2, p. 451; Frances A. Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgia Plantation in 1838-1839 (New York, 1961; originally published in 1863), p. 342; New Orleans Picayune, December 24, 1856. 21. Stampp, Peculiar Institution, p. 87; U. B. Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old South (Boston, 1929), p. 276. 22. William Francis Allen et al., Slave Songs of the United States (New York, 1867), p. 48; Raymond and Alice H. Bauer, "Day to Day Resistance to Slavery," Journal of Negro History, vol. 27 (1942), pp. 388-419; Stampp, Peculiar Institution, pp. 88, 90. 23. John Dollard, Caste and Class in a Southern Town (New York, 1949), p. 390; Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York, 1979), p. 221. 24. Sarah Logue to "Jarm," February 20, 1860, and J. W. Loguen to Mrs. Sarah Logue, reprinted in Boston Liberator, April 27, 1860. 25. Stampp, Peculiar Institution, p. 132; Phillips, Life and Labor in the South, p. 209; Nat Turner and T. R. Gray, The Confessions of Nat Turner, in Herbert Aptheker, Nat Turner's Rebellion (New York, 1968), appendix,pp. 136,138, 130-131. 26. Quoted in Stampp, Peculiar Institution, pp. 100, 127; Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974), pp. 300, 318, 602. Genovese's study offers an understanding of slavery from the viewpoint of the slaves as men and women. 27. Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964), p. 39. 28. Wade, Slavery in the Cities, p. 49. 29. Wade, Slavery in the Cities, p. 279. 30. Wade, Slavery in the Cities, pp. 245-246; Eugene Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery (New York, 1965), p. 226. 31. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, pp. 6, 21. This is the best book on what it felt like to be suddenly free. 32. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 7; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago, 1939), p. 79; Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, p. 133. 33. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 21; Bell Wiley, Southern Negroes, 1861-1865 (New Haven, Conn., 1938), pp. 72, 70. 34. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 12; Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, pp. 105, 581. 35. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, pp. 19, 59; Edwin D. Hoffman, "From Slavery to Self-Reliance," Journal of Negro History, vol. 41 (January 1956), pp. 13-14.

36. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, pp. 144, 135; Wiley, Southern Negroes, p. 83; Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, p. 101. 37. Harriet A. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, written by herself (Cambridge, Mass., 1987; originally published in 1857), pp. 77, 27, 55; Mary B. Chestnut, A Diary from Dixie (Cambridge, Mass., 1961), pp. 21-22. 38. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (New York, 1968; originally published in 1845), p. 26. 39. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 27-30. 40. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 76-78. 41. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 78-82. 42. Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (New York, 1969; originally published in 1855), pp. 315-316. 43. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 75-94. 44. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 112, 186. 45. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 124-125. 46. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 125-134. 47. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 140, 142-143. 48. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 271-275; Douglass, in Boston Liberator, June 8, 1849; Douglass's Monthly, November 1859; Douglass, letter to John Brown, in Boston Liberator, November 11, 1859. 49. Douglass, in Boston Liberator, November 11, 1859. 50. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 440-452. 51. Douglass, letter to H. G. Warner, in Boston Liberator, October 6, 1848; Douglass, in Philip S. Foner, The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, 4 vols. (New York, 1950), (ed.) vol. 1, p. 423, vol. 2, p. 421, vol. 4, pp. 116, 427; Rochester North Star, September 15, 1848; Douglass, quoted in Benjamin Quarles, Frederick Douglass (New York, 1968), p. 35; Douglass, Life and Times, p. 534; Douglass to Francis Jackson, January 29, 1846, Anti-Slavery Collection, Boston Public Library. 52. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 284-290; Douglass, "The Future of the Colored Race," in The North American Review, in Foner (ed.), Life and Writings, vol. 4, pp. 193-196. 53. Douglass, quoted in Frank A. Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (Boston, 1883), p. 19; Martin Delany, Official Report of the Niger Valley Exploring Party, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, Search for a Place: Black Separatism and Africa, 1860 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1969), p. 121. 54. Bell, Search for a Place, p. 121. 55. Martin Delany, "American Civilization-Treatment of the Colored People in the United States," Rochester North Star, March 30, 1849. 56. Student petition to the faculty, December 10, 1850, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School. 57. Records of the Medical Faculty, vol. 2, Minutes for December 16, 1859; drafts ofletters to the Massachusetts Colonization Society and to Abraham R. Thompson, Countway Library.

58. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (New York, 1969; originally published in 1852), pp. 42, 47-48, 190, 197-198; Delany, "Political Destiny," in Rollin, Delany, p. 358. 59. Delany, "Domestic Economy," in Rochester North Star, March 23, 1849; Delany, in Rochester North Star, April 28, 1848; Delany, Condition, Elevation, Emigration, pp. 44-46, 192-195. 60. Delany, "Political Destiny," pp. 330-335, 355. 61. Delany, Condition, Elevation, Emigration, p. 44. 62. Delany, Condition, Elevation, Emigration, pp. 329-334; 183, 191, 205,210. 63. Delany, Condition, Elevation, Emigration, pp. 48, 49, 67-84, 109, 203; "Platform: or Declaration of Sentiments of the Cleveland Convention," in Herbert Aptheker (ed.), A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, 2 vols. (New York, 1967), vol. 1, p. 365; Delany, Official Report, p. 32. 64. Delany, Official Report, p. 64. 65. Douglass, Life and Times, pp. 335-336; Delany, in Victor Ullman, Martin R. Delany: The Beginnings of Black Nationalism (Boston, 1971), p. 312. 66. Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 64. 67. James McPherson (ed.), The Negro's Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted during the War for the Union (New York, 1965), p. 298. 68. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 117. 69. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 399; McPherson (ed.), Negro's Civil War, p. 294. 70. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, pp. 401-402. 71. La Wanda Cox, "The Promise of Land for the Freedmen," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 45 (December 1958), p. 429; James McPherson, The Struggle for Equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Princeton, N.J., 1964), p. 409; Hoffman, "From Slavery to Self-Reliance," pp. 22, 27. 72. Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861-1877 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1965), p. 54; McPherson, Struggle for Equality, p. 416; Ullman, Delany, p. 342. 73. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), p. 54. 74. "The Life Story of a Negro Peon," in Hamilton Holt (ed.), The Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans as Told by Themselves (New York, 1906), pp. 183-199; Negro folk song, in Edmund David Cronon, Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Improvement Association (Madison, Wis., 1966), p. 21.

75. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (Baton Rouge, La., 1951), p. 112. 76. Paul M. Gaston, The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking (New York, 1970), p. 147; Broadus Mitchell, The Rise of Cotton Mills in the South (Baltimore, 1921), p. 214; Sterling D. Spero and Abram L. Harris, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement (Port Washington, N.Y., 1966), p. 246; Woodward, Origins of the New South, p. 360; Paul B. Worthman, "Working Class Mobility in Birmingham, Alabama, 1880-1914," in Tamara K. Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971), p. 175. 77. James Creelman, in New York World, September 18, 1895, reprinted in Louis R. Harlan (ed.), The Booker T. Washington Papers, 4 vols. (Urbana, Ill., 1975), vol. 4, pp. 13, 14. 78. Booker T. Washington, "Atlanta Address," in Up from Slavery (New York, 1963; originally published in 1901), pp. 153-158. 79. James Creelman, in New York World, reprinted in Louis R. Harlan (ed.), The Booker T. Washington Papers, 4 vols. (Urbana, Ill., 1975), vol. 4, p. 3. 80. August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1966), p. 107. 81. Washington, Up from Slavery, pp. 27, 83, 146; Booker T. Washington, "The Educational Outlook in the South," Journal of the Proceedings and Addresses of the National Educational Association, Session of the Year 1884, at Madison, Wis. (Boston, 1885), pp. 125-130. 82. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, p. 399; Rayford Logan, The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877-1901 (New York, 1954).

Chapter 6: Fleeing "the Tyrant's Heel"

1. Leon Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790- 1860 (Chicago, 1965), p. 163; David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), p. 134. 2. Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America (New York, 1985), p. 105; Kerby Miller, Bruce Boling, and David Doyle, "Emigrants and Exiles: Irish Cultures and Irish Emigration to North America, 1790-1922," Irish Historical Studies, vol. 40 (1980), p. 112; Oliver MacDonagh, "The Irish Famine Emigration to the United States," in Perspectives in American History, vol. 10 (1976), p. 358; Robert L. Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads and Songs (Bowling Green, Ohio, 1975),' pp. 35, 37. Miller's book is filled with archivally based information. Miller has done for the Irish immigrants what Irving

Howe has done for the Jewish immigrants in World of Our Fathers (New York, 1976). The theme of"exile" is emphasized in Miller's study. 3. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 100, 99; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, pp. 592, 165, 129. 4. Lawrence J. McQaffrey, The Irish Diaspora in America (Washington, D.C., 1984), pp. 17-18; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 70; Arnold Schrier, Ireland and the American Emigration, 1850-1900 (New York, 1970), p. 45. 5. Owen Dudley Edwards, "The American Image of Ireland: A Study of Its Early Phases," Perspectives in American History, vol. 4 (1970), p. 236; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 32; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, pp. 96, 50. 6. MacDonagh, "Irish Famine Emigration," p. 366; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 241. 7. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 139, 197, 202; Schrier, Ireland and the American Emigration, p. 95. 8. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 34, 53; Hamilton Holt, "Life Story of an Irish Cook," in Holt (ed.), Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans as Told by Themselves (New York, 1906), p. 144. 9. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 281. 10. Rasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, Md., 1983), p. 2; Wright, Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 46. Diner's study is an excellent example of the ways women's history can illuminate general understanding of immigration. 11. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 285-287; Michael Kraus, Immigration: The American Mosaic (New York, 1966), p. 130; Schrier, Ireland and the American Emigration, p. 42; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 3. 12. Oscar Handlin, Boston's Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation (New York, 1968), p. 51; MacDonagh, "Irish Famine Emigration," pp. 431,407; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 298. 13. McCaffrey, Irish Diaspora, pp. 71, 72; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 126. 14. MacDonagh, "Irish Famine Emigration," pp. 403, 410-411. 15. Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 8; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 360. 16. Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (Baton Rouge, 1956), pp. 32-33; Buckley, Tour in America, p. 164; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 533. 17. Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 539; Wittke, Irish in America, p. 3. 18. Wittke, Irish in America, p. 37; Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 60; Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, I Speak My Own Piece (New York, 1955), p. 20; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 267, 318; Stephan Thernstrom, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth Century City (Cambridge,

Mass., 1964), p. 27; Michael B. Buckley, Diary of a Tour in America (Dublin, 1886), p. 142; McCaffrey, Irish Diaspora, p. 71. 19. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 318; Anne Halley, "Afterword," in Mary Doyle Curran, The Parish and the Hill (New York, 1986), pp. 230-231; Kerby Miller, "Assimilation and Alienation: Irish Emigrants' Responses to Industrial America, 1871-1921," in Drudy (ed.), Irish in America, p. 105. 20. Frederick Rudolph, "Chinamen in Yankeedom: Anti-Unionism in Massachusetts in 1870," American Historical Review, vol. 53, no. 1 (October 1947), p. 10. 21. The Nation, vol. 10 (June 23, 1870), p. 397. 22. William Shanks, "Chinese Skilled Labor," Scribner's Monthly, vol. 2 (September 1871), pp. 495-496. 23. The Nation, vol. 10 (June 30, 1870), p. 412; Rudolph, "Chinamen in Yankeedom," p. 23. 24. Frank Norton, "Our Labor System and the Chinese," Scribner's Monthly, vol. 2 (May 1871), p. 70. 25. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, pp. 133, 146; Michael B. Katz, The Irony of School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth Century Massachusetts (Boston, 1972), pp. 124, 120-121, 123, 41-43, 172, 88; Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York, 1977), pp. 1-27, 71; Stanley K. Schultz, The Culture Factory: Boston Public Schools, 1789-1860 (New York, 1973), p. 243; Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York, 1976), p. 299; Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 163. 26. Halley, "Afterword," p. 27; Thernstrom, Poverty and Progress, p. 27; Schultz, Culture Factory, p. 289; Katz, Irony of Early School Reform, pp. 182-183, 43. 27. Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, pp. 136-137. 28. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Slave States Before the Civil War (New York, 1859), p. 76; Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 166. 29. Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, p. 137. 30. Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 163; Gutman, Black Family, p. 301; "Folk-Lore Scrap-Book," in Journal of American Folk-Lore, vol. 12, no. 46 (July-September 1899), p. 227. 31. Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 163; Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, p.137. 32. Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966), p. 45. 33. Schultz, Culture Factory, p. 193; Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974), p. 24; Litwack, North of Slavery, p. 163; Hanqlin, Boston's Immigrants, p. 133. 34. Schultz, Culture Factory, p. 193; Wittke, Irish in America, p. 143; Albon P. Man, Jr., "Labor Competition and the New York Draft Riots of

1863," Journal of Negro History, vol. 36, no. 4 (October 1951), pp. 386, 377,378. 35. Adrian Cook, Armies of the Streets: The New York City Draft Riots of 1868 (Lexington, Ky., 1974), p. 205; Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (New York, 1981), p. 177.

36. Cook, Armies in the Streets, pp. 80, 123, 97; Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (New York, 1990), pp. 17-42. Man, "Labor Competition," p. 401; Wittke, Irish in America, p. 146. 37. Litwack, North of Slavery, pp. 158-159; Diner, Erin's Daughters, pp. 31, 30; Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 162. 38. Janet A. Nolan, Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland, 1885-1920 (Lexington, Ky., 1989), pp. 23, 22; Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 10; Lynn H. Lees and John Model, "The Irish Countryman Urbanized: A Comparative Perspective on the Famine Migration," Journal of Urban History, vol. 3, no. 4 (August 1977), p. 392; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 408. 39. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 407. 40. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 408; Schrier, Ireland and American Emigration, p. 26; Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 90; Wright (ed.), Irish Emigrant Ballads, p. 100. 41. Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 92. 42. Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, pp. 154, 155; Lucy Maynard Salmon, Domestic Service (New York, 1897), p. 79; Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 83. 43. Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 90; Schrier, Ireland and American Emigration, p. 29. 44. Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 94. 45. Holt, "Life Story of an Irish Cook," p. 146; Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 158; Helen Campbell, Prisoners of Poverty: Women Wage-Workers, Their Trades and Their Lives (Boston, 1900), p. 226. 46. Campbell, Prisoners of Poverty, pp. 227,229,226, 15-16. 47. Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 157; Campbell, Prisoners of Poverty, p. 224. 48. Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 157; Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 75; Flynn, I Speak My Own Piece, p. 24. 49. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 505; Philip S. Forrer (ed.), The Factory Girls (Urbana, Ill., 1977), pp. 6-7; Diner, Erin's Daughters, p. 75. 50. Schrier, Ireland and American Emigration, p. 28; Diner, Erin's Daughters, pp. 77, 78. 51. Schrier, Ireland and American Emigration, p. 24; Carol Groneman, "Working-Class Immigrant Women in Mid-Nineteenth-Century New York: The Irish Woman's Experience," Journal of Urban History, vol. 4, no. 3 (May 1978), p. 269. 52. Schrier, Ireland and American Emigration, p. 38; Miller, "Assimilation and Alienation," p. 97.

53. David M. Katzman, Seven Days a Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America (New York, 1978), pp. 70,231. 54. Thernstrom, Poverty and Progress, pp. 132-133; Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 496, 508. 55. Marcia Graham Synnott, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1900-1970 (Westport, Conn., 1979), pp. 40-44, 245. 56. Steven P. Erie, Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Urban Machine Politics, 1840-1985 (Berkeley, 1988), p. 28; David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989), p. 6; Schrier, Ireland and American Emigration, p. 130; Flynn, I Speak My Own Piece, p. 19. 57. Wittke, Irish in America, p. 26. 58. Erie, Rainbow's End, pp. 248, 2, 5, 8, 87; Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), pp. 218, 223-230. 59. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, p. 500; David Montgomery, "The Irish and the American Labor Movement," in David N. Doyle and Owen D. Edwards (eds.), America and Ireland, 1776-1976 (Westport, Conn., 1980), pp. 211-212. 60. Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, pp. 133-166. 61. Douglas V. Shaw, The Making of an Immigrant City: Ethnic and Cultural Conflict in Jersey City, New Jersey, 1850-1877 (New York, 1976), p. 2; Kathleen Donovan, "Good Old Pat: An Irish-American Stereotype in Decline," Eire-Ireland: A Journal of Irish Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (fall 1980), p. 9; Flynn, I Speak My Own Piece, p. 13. 62. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, pp. 508, 511, 512.

Chapter 7: "Foreigners in Their Native Land"

1. Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, November 24, 1801, in Paul L. Ford (ed.), The Works of Thomas Jefferson, 20 vols. (New York, 1892- 1899), vol. 9, p. 317. For the title of this chapter, see Juan Nepomuceno Seguin who described himself as "a foreigner in my native land," in David J. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans (Albuquerque, N. Mex., 1973), p. 176. 2. David J. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1973), pp. 30, 102, 104-105. 3. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 84. 4. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 89; Arnold De Leon, They Called TherrJ, Greasers: Anglo Attitudes toward Mexicans in Texas, 1821-1900 (Austin, Tex., 1983), pp. 3, 12; Rodolfo Acuna, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1981), pp. 6-7, 8. 5. Acuna, Occupied America, p. 9.

6. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 92; Acuna, Occupied America, p. 10. 7. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), pp. 213-214. 8. Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 95. 9. James K. Polk, quoted in Norman Graebner, Empire on the Pacific: A Study in American Continental Expansion (New York, 1955), pp. 48-50. 10. Ben Kelsey, quote, in exhibit on the Bear Flag Republic, in Sonoma Mission Museum, Sonoma, California; Leonard Pitt, The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890 (Berkeley, Calif., 1970), p. 29. 11. Pitt, Decline of the Californios, p. 27. 12. Vallejo to Thomas Larkin, September 15, 1846, in Myrtle McKittrick, Vallejo: Son of California (Portland, Oreg., 1944), pp. 275-276. 13. Walton Bean, California: An Interpretive History (New York, 1978), pp. 32, 36, 40, 38. 14. Douglas Monroy, Thrown Among Strangers, pp. 101-102, 22, 151, 153; exhibit on the Californios, Sonoma Mission Museum, Sonoma, California. 15. Bean, California, pp. 65-66; Pitt, Decline of the Californios, p. 19; Monroy, Thrown Among Strangers, p. 161. 16. Richard Henry Dana, Two Years Before the Mast (New York, 1963; originally published in 1840), pp. 136-137, 60-61, 188. 17. Monroy, Thrown Among Strangers, pp. 163, 164. 18. Pitt, Decline of the Californios, p. 29; John Bidwell, "Fremont in the Conquest of California," Century Magazine, reprinted by the California Department of Parks and Recreation (Sacramento, 1987), p. 522. 19. Acuna, Occupied America, p. 15; Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (New York, 1968), pp. 102-103. McWilliams's study is a classic. 20. Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History (Chicago, 1963), p. 112. 21. Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, p. 235; Weinberg, Manifest Destiny, p. 111; David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), pp. 14, 18. Montejano's work is an excellent and nuanced study based on original research. 22. "The Conquest of California," Southern Quarterly Review, vol. 15 (July 1849), pp. 411-415. 23. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 199; Acuna, Occupied America, p. 19. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo described the newly acquired territory as places "occupied" by U.S. forces. See the terms of the treaty in Wayne Moquin (ed.), A Documentary History of the Mexican Americans (New York, 1972), pp. 182-187.

24. Acuna, Occupied America, p. 20; Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 176. 25. Robert F. Heizer and Alan F. Almquist, The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination under Spain, Mexico, and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), p. 151. 26. Heizer and Almquist, Other Californians, p. 143; Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, pp. 171-173. 27. Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 23, 46, 41, 187. This is an important communtty study that provides insights into larger patterns of Chicano experiences. 28. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, pp. 39, 143; Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, pp. 146, 147. 29. Acuna, Occupied America, p. 19. 30. Mario Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality (Notre Dame, Ind., 1979), pp. 26-27. This is a very useful integration of theories of race and class and the history of Chicanos; Monroy, Thrown Among Strangers, p. 114; Bean, California, pp. 132-133. 31. Barrera, Race and Class, pp. 20, 19; Bean, California, p. 135; Heizer and Almquist, Other Californians, p. 150; Pitt, Decline of the Californios, p. 118; Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, pp. 197-199. 32. Pitt, Decline of the Californios, pp. 96-97; McKittrick, Vallejo, pp. 316, 318, 322, 324, 347; M. G. Vallejo, "What the Gold Rush Brought to California," in Valeska Bari (ed.), The Course of Empire: First Hand Accounts of California in the Days of the Gold Rush of '49 (New York, 1931), p. 53. 33. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, p. 68. 34. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, pp. 61, 62. 35. McWilliams, North from Mexico, p. 77; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, pp. 45-46, 34, 35-36. 36. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 199; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 36. 37. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, p. 158; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 191. 38. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, p. 113. 39. McWilliams, North from Mexico, p. 154; Arnold De Leon, The Tejano Community, 1836-1900 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1982), pp. 55-56. 40. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, p. 114. 41. De Leon, Greasers, p. 62; McWilliams, North from Mexico, pp. 176, 158. 42. Mario T. Garcia, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), p. 37; Camarillo, Chicanos in a

Changing Society, p. 97. Garcia's excellent study is based on primary sources, showing the ways the immigrants continued to think of themselves as Mexicans. 43. McWilliams, North from Mexico, p. 167; "Los Enganchados-the Hooked Ones," in Manuel Gamio, Mexican Immigration to the United States (Chicago, 1930), pp. 84-85. 44. Moquin (ed.), A Documentary History, p. 212; McWilliams, North from Mexico, p. 144. 45. Barrera, Race and Class, pp. 45, 46; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 139; Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, p. 73. 46. Garcia, Desert Immigrants, p. 90; Barrera, Race and Class, p. 41. 47. Andres E. Jimenez Montoya, "Political Domination in the Labor Market: Racial Division in the Arizona Copper Industry," Working Paper 103, Institute for the Study of Social Change, University of California, Berkeley (1977), p. 20. 48. De Leon, Tejano Community, p. 202. 49. Tomas Almaguer, "Racial Domination and Class Conflict in Capitalist Agriculture: The Oxnard Sugar Beet Workers' Strike of 1903," Labor History, vol. 25, no. 3 (summer 1984), p. 334. 50. Almaguer, "Racial Domination," pp. 346,347. 51. McWilliams, North from Mexico, p. 197; Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, p. 219. 52. Acuna, Occupied America, p. 88. 53. De Leon, Tejano Community, pp. 194-196; Garcia, Desert Immigrants, p. 224. 54. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land, pp. 248-250.

Chapter 8: Searching for Gold Mountain

1. William Shakespeare, The Tempest (New York, 1904), act 2, sc. 2, 60-63; Thomas Hart Benton, Selections of Editorial Articles from the St. Louis Enquirer, on the Subject of Oregon and Texas, as Originally Published in that Paper in the Years 1818-1819 (St. Louis, 1844), pp. 5, 23; Thomas Hart Benton, Speech on the Oregon Question, May 28, 1846, U.S. Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 29th Cong., 1st sess. (Washington, D.C., 1846), pp. 915-917; Thomas Hart Benton, Speech on railroad bill, U.S. Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 30th Cong., 2nd sess. (Washington, D.C., 1849), pp. 473-474; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), p. 1. 2. Aaron H. Palmer, Memoir, geographical, political, and commercial, on the present state, productive resources, and capabilities for commerce, of Siberia, Manchuria, and the Asiatic Islands of the Northern Pacific Ocean; and on the importance of opening commercial intercourse with those countries, March 8, 1848. U.S. Congress, Senate, 30th Cong., 1st sess., Senate misc. no. 80, pp. 1, 52, 60, 61.

3. June Mei, "Socioeconomic Origins of Emigration: Guandong to California, 1850-1882," in Lucie Cheng and Edna Bonacich (eds.), Labor Immigration under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States before World War II (Berkeley, Calif., 1984), p. 232. 4. Kil Young Zo, Chinese Emigration into the United States, 1850-1880 (New York, 1971), p. 62; "The Celestials at Home and Abroad," Littel's Living Age, August 14, 1852, p. 294; Clarence E. Glick, Sojourners and Settlers: Chinese Migrants in Hawaii (Honolulu, 1980). 5. Circular, translation, in Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America (Dubuque, Iowa, 1982), p. 5; Lee Chew, interview, "Life Story of a Chinaman," in Hamilton Holt (ed.), The Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans as Told by Themselves (New York, 1906), pp. 287-288. 6. Folk song, translation, in Marlon K. Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain: Cantonese Rhymes from San Francisco Chinatown (Berkeley, Calif., 1987), p. 39. 7. "Letter of the Chinamen to His Excellency, Gov. Bigler," San Francisco, April 28, 1852, reprinted in Littel's Living Age, July 3, 1852, pp. 32-34; message from Dr. Bowring to Lord Malmesbury, January 5, 1853, in Zo, Chinese Emigration, p. 86; William Speer, The Oldest and the Newest Empire: China and the United States (Hartford, Conn., 1870), pp. 475-478. 8. Daily Alta California, May 12, 1852; Lai Chun-Chuen, Remarks of the Chinese Merchants of San Francisco, upon Governor Bigler's Message (San Francisco, 1855), p. 4. 9. Charles J. McClain, Jr., "The Chinese Struggle for Civil Rights in Nineteenth Century America: The First Phase, 1850-1870," California Law Review, vol. 72 (1984), pp. 544,555. 10. Sucheng Chan, "Chinese Livelihood in Rural California: The Impact of Economic Change, 1860-1880," Pacific Historical Review, vol. 53, no. 3 (1984), pp. 281-282; Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength: A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), pp. 114, 115; Otis Gibson, The Chinese in America (Cincinnati, 1877), p. 234. 11. E. L. Sabin, Building the Pacific Railway (Philadelphia, 1919), p. 111; Corinne K. Hoexter, From Canton to California: The Epic of Chinese Immigration (New York, 1976), p. 73; Jack Chen, The Chinese in America (New York, 1981), p. 67. 12. Thomas Chinn, H. M. Lai, and Philip Choy, A History of the Chinese in California (San Francisco, 1969), p. 45; Albert P. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi (Hartford, Conn., 1867), p. 462; Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), p. 65. 13. Thomas W. Chinn, ed., A History of the Chinese in California (San Francisco, 1969), p. 46; San Francisco Alta, July 1 and 3, 1867; Sabin, Building the Pacific Railway, p. 111.

14. Paul M. Ong, "Chinese Labor in Early San Francisco: Racial Segmentation and Industrial Expansion," Amerasia, vol. 8, no. 1 (1981), pp. 70-75. 15. Chan, "Chinese Livelihood in Rural California," pp. 288-289, 296, 300-307; A. W. Loomis, "How Our Chinamen Are Employed," Overland Monthly, March 1869, p. 234. 16. Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1971), pp. 67, 71. 17. Loomis, "How Our Chinamen Are Employed," p. 237; Sandy Lydon, Chinese Gold: The Chinese in the Monterey Bay Region (Capitola, Calif., 1985), p. 286. 18. Loomis, "How Our Chinamen Are Employed," pp. 233-234; calculations in Sucheng Chan, This Bitter-Sweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910 (Berkeley, Calif., 1986), pp. 305, 306, 307, 316,317. 19. Chan, Bitter-Sweet Soil, pp. 332-333. 20. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, p. 74. 21. Paul Ong, "Chinese Laundries as an Urban Occupation in Nineteenth Century California," The Annals of the Chinese Historical Society of the Pacific Northwest (Seattle, 1983), p. 72. 22. Lee Chew, "Life Story of a Chinaman," pp. 289-290; Wong Chin Foo, "The Chinese in New York," The Cosmopolitan, vol. 5, no. 4 (June 1888), p. 298. 23. Paul Siu, The Chinese Laundryman: A Study of Social Isolation (New York, 1987), pp. 52, 119-123. 24. Lee Chew, "Life Story of a Chinaman," p. 296; Ong, "Chinese Laundries as an Urban Occupation," pp. 69, 70, 74; Victor and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ': A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York, 1972), p. 22; Ng Poon Chew, "The Chinaman in America," Chautauquan, vol. 9, no. 4 (January 1889), p. 802. 25. Dan Caldwell, "The Negroization of the Chinese Stereotype in California," Southern California Quarterly, vol. 53 (June 1971), pp. 123-131; planter, quoted in Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (New York, 1981), p. 184; Vicksburg Times, June 30, 1869, in James W. Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), p. 22; planters' convention report, reprinted in John R. Commons et al. (eds.), A Documentary History of American Industrial Society (Cleveland, 1910/11), vol. 9, p. 81. 26. John Todd, The Sunset Land (Boston, 1870), pp. 284-285; Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South: A People Without a History (Baton Rouge, La., 1984), pp. 109, 123-124; Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese, pp. 23, 24; Barth, Bitter Strength, p. 189; Ralph Keeler, "The 'Heathen Chinee' in the South," Every Saturday, vol. 3, no. 83 (July 29, 1871), p. 117. 27. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South, p. 136.

28. Samuel Bowles, Our New West (Hartford, Conn., 1869), p. 414. 29. Report of the Joint Special Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration, Senate Report No. 689, 44th Cong., 2nd sess., 1876/7, pp. 679, 680. 30. Henry Robinson, "Our Manufacturing Era," Overland Monthly, vol. 2 (March 1869), p. 282; Report of the Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration, p. 667. 31. Said, Orientalism, p. 477. 32. San Francisco Alta, June 4, 1853; Hutching's California Magazine, vol. 1 (March 1857), p. 387; New York Times, December 26, 1873; The Wasp Magazine, vol. 30 (January-June 1893), pp. 10-11; Report of the Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration, p. vi; Caldwell, "The Negroization of the Chinese Stereotype," pp. 123-131. 33. Megumi Dick Osumi, "Asians and California's Anti-Miscegenation Laws," in Nobuya Tsuchida (ed.), Asian and Pacific American Experiences: Women's Perspectives (Minneapolis, 1982), pp. 2, 6. 34. California Marin Journal, April 13, 1876; Seymour, in New York Times, August 6, 1870; The Nation, vol. 9 (July 15, 1869), p. 445; Congressional Record, 47th Cong., 1st sess., p. 3267. 35. California Supreme Court, The People v. Hall, October 1, 1854, in Robert F. Heizer and Alan F. Almquist, The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination under Spain, Mexico, and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), p. 229. 36. Stuart C. Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1752-1882 (Berkeley, Calif., 1969), p. 190. 37. John A. Garraty, Unemployment in History: Economic Thought and Public Policy (New York, 1978), pp. 103-109. 38. The Nation (March 16, 1882), p. 222; Congressional Record, 47th Cong., 1st sess., pp. 2973-2974, 2033, 3310, 3265, 3268; appendix, pp. 48, 89, 21; Chinese Exclusion Act of 1888, reprinted in Cheng-Tsu Wu, "Chink!" A Documentary History of Anti-Chinese Prejudice in America (New York, 1972), pp. 82-83. 39. Hoexter, From Canton to California, p. 44; McClain, "Chinese Struggle for Civil Rights," pp. 555-557, 564-567; Fung Tang, "Address to the Committee by the Chinese Merchants," Daily Alta California, June 26, 1869. 40. Kwang Chang Ling, Why Should the Chinese Go? A Pertinent Inquiry from a Mandarin High in Authority (San Francisco, 1878), p. 16; "Life History as a Social Document of Mr. J. S. Look," August 13, 1924, p. 1, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; "Life History as Social Document of Law Yow," August 12, 1924, p. 3, Survey ofRaGe Relations; "Life History and Social Document of Andrew Kan," August 22, 1924, p. 2, Survey of Race Relations; Huie Kin, Reminiscences (Peiping, 1932), p. 27. 41. Lai Chun-Chuen, Remarks of the Chinese Merchants, pp. 3, 6.

42. For a study of gender and race discrimination related to Chicanas, see Margarita Melville (ed.), Twice a Minority: Mexican American Women (St. Louis, 1980); Ginger Chih, Immigration of Chinese Women to the U.S.A., 1900-1940, unpublished M.A. thesis, Sarah Lawrence College, 1977, p. 11. 43. Victor Nee and Herbert Y. Wong, "Asian American Socioeconomic Achievement: The Strength of the Family Bond," Sociological Perspectives, vol. 28, no. 3 (July 1985), pp. 288-289; Mau Yun Len, interview, July 13, 1988. 44. The Friend, January 1880, p. 6; In Re Ah Moy, on Habeas Corpus, Circuit Court, District of California, in Robert Desty (ed.), Federal Reporter: Circuit and District Courts of the United States, August- November, 1884 (St. Paul, 1884), pp. 785-789. On the exclusion of Chinese wives, see Megumi Dick Osumi, "Asians and California's Anti- Miscegenation Laws," p. 7; the 1882 and 1888 acts are reprinted in Cheng-Tsu Wu, "Chink!" A Documentary History, pp. 70-75, 80-85. 45. Jack Chew, interview, in appendix of Peter C. Y. Leung, One Day, One Dollar: Locke, California and the Chinese Farming Experience in the Sacramento Delta (El Cerrito, Calif., 1984), p. 68; Willard G. Jue, "Chin Gee-Hee, Chinese Pioneer Entrepreneur in Seattle and Toishan," in Douglas W. Lee (ed.), The Annals of the Chinese Historical Society of the Pacific Northwest (Seattle, 1983), p. 32; A. W. Loomis, "Chinese Women in California," Overland Monthly (April 1869), pp. 349-350; Lydon, Chinese Gold, pp. 156-158; "Memorial of the Chinese Six Companies," 1876, reprinted in Gibson, Chinese in America, p. 318. 46. "Story of Wong Ah So," in Social Science Institute, Fiske University, "Orientals and Their Cultural Adjustment" (Nashville, 1946), pp. 31-33. 47. Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 309; Lilac Chen, in Nee, Longtime Californ', p. 85; Judy Yung, Chinese Women of America: A Pictorial History (Seattle, 1986), p. 23; Hirata, "Chinese Immigrant Women," p. 234. 48. Perrin, Coming to America, p. 19; Sing Kum, "Letter by a Chinese Girl," reprinted in Gibson, Chinese in America, pp. 220-221, "Story of Wong Ah So," pp. 31-32; "Story of Exslave, and Slave Owner," in "Two Schools for Chinese" by Mrs. Park, August 1924, pp. 3-4, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives. 49. Lucie Cheng Hirata, "Chinese Immigrant Women in Nineteenth- Century California," in Carol Berkin and Mary Norton (eds.), Women of America (Boston, 1979), pp. 243-244; folk song, translation, Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 321. 50. Lee Chew, "Life Story of a Chinaman," p. 295; "Life History of Mr. Woo Gen," July 29, 1924, p. 16, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library; "Conversation with waiter, International Chop Suey," February 2, 1924, Survey of Race Relations. 51. Chinn et al., Chinese in California, p. 10; Huie, Reminiscences,

pp. 25, 28; A. W. Loomis, "The Old East in the New West," in Overland Monthly (October 1868), p. 364. 52. Gibson, Chinese in America, p. 14; A. W. Loomis, "Chinese in California: Their Sign-Board Literature," Overland Monthly (August 1868), pp. 152-155. 53. Based on tables in appendix of Chan, "Chinese Livelihood in Rural California," pp. 300-307. 54. "Interview with Chinese Tong Members in Chicago, January 1925," and letter by C. 0. M., a laundry worker, December 14, 1913, "Segregation folder," Box 1, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; interview by C. H. Burnett, August 9, 1924, p. 5, Survey of Race Relations. 55. A. W. Loomis, "Holiday in the Chinese Quarter," Overland Monthly (February 1869), pp. 148, 149, 151; poem, in Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 195. 56. Chinese rhyme, in Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 90; Gibson, Chinese in America, pp. 15-16; A. W. Loomis, "The Old East in the New West," p. 364; Lee Chew, "Life Story of a Chinaman," p. 294; "Conversation with waiter, International Chop Suey," February 2, 1924, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; "Interview with Tom Lee, Cook for Dr. N. C. Peterson," circa 1924, p. 2, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives. 57. Mark and Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 52; Robert Stewart Culin, in Stanford M. Lyman, Chinatown and Little Tokyo (Millwood, N.Y., 1986), p. 123; Robert Culin, "Customs of the Chinese in America," Journal of American Folklore (July-September 1890) pp. 191, 193; Pardee Lowe, Father and Glorious Descendant (Boston, 1943), p. 98; Wong Chin Foo, "Chinese in New York," p. 301; folk song, in Him Mark Lai, Joe Huang, and Don Wong, The Chinese of America, 1785-1980 (San Francisco, 1980), p. 51; translated and reprinted in Loomis, "The Old East in the New West," p. 362. 58. Chinese rhyme, in Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 124; letter by unknown Chinese migrant, in the Kam Wah Chung Company, John Day, Oregon, Papers. 59. Chu-chia to Lung On, July 1899; wife to Lung On, undated; Lung On to Liang Kwan-jin, March 2, 1905; Liang Kwang-jin to Lung On, March 4, 1905; Ing Du-hsio to Ing Hay, April 9, no year, translations by Chia-Lin Chen, Kam Wah Chung Company Papers. 60. Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 294. 61. Rose Hum Lee, "Chinese Dilemma," Phylon (1949), p. 139; Lai, Lim, and Yung, Island, p. 12; interview with old laundryman, in "Interviews with Two Chinese," circa 1924, box 326, folder 325, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; "Life History and Social Document of Andrew Kan," p. 11, Survey of Race Relations, Hoover Institution Archives.

62. Folk song, translation, in Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, p. 96. 63. Esther Wong, "The History and Problem of Angel Island," March 1924, pp. 7-8, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; "Interview with Mr. Faris, Deputy Commissioner oflmmigration in Seattle," pp. 2-11, Survey of Race Relations. 64. H. K. Wong, Gum Sahn Yun: Gold Mountain Men (San Francisco, 1987), p. 187; Alice Fun, interview, February 28, 1982, Chinese Women of America Research Project, Chinese Culture Foundation of San Francisco, p. 3; Nee, Longtime Californ', p. 63. 65. Eliot G. Mears, Resident Orientals on the American Pacific Coast (Chicago, 1928), p. 408. 66. Richard Kock Dare, "The Economic and Social Adjustment of the San Francisco Chinese for the Past Fifty Years," unpublished M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1959, p. 54. 67. Esther Wong, "The History and Problem of Angel Island," pp. 1-4, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; Mary Naka, "Angel Island Immigration Station," 1922, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives. 68. Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung (eds.), Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910-1940 (San Francisco, 1980), p. 44; Diane Mei Lin Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America (Dubuque, Iowa, 1982), pp. 47-48; Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese Experience in America (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), p. 101. 69. Lai et al., Island, pp. 126, 150, 94. 70. Rose Hum Lee, "The Decline of Chinatowns in the U.S.," American Journal of Sociology, vol. 54, no. 5 (March 1949), pp. 425,427,428; Nee, Longtime Californ', p. 62; Rose Hum Lee, "Chinese in the U.S. Today: The War Has Changed Their Lives," Survey Graphic (October 1942), p. 419. 71. Kian Moon Kwan, "Assimilation of the Chinese in the United States: An Exploratory Study in California," unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1958, p. 62; Nee, Longtime Californ', p. 148; Wong, "Chinese in New York," p. 308; Rose Hum Lee, The Chinese in the U.S.A. (Hong Kong, 1960), pp. 40, 41; Ling-chi Wang, "Politics of Assimilation and Repression: History of the Chinese in the United States, 1940 to 1970," unpublished manuscript, Asian American Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley), p. 47. Even the 52 percent figure would not have been reached had it not also been for the 90,299 Chinese who returned to their homeland between 1908 and 1943. See S. W. Kung, Chinese in American Life: Some Aspects of Their History, Status, Problems, and Contributions (Seattle, 1962), p. 94. 72. Nee, Longtime Californ', pp. 150, 180; Nee, "Growing Up in a Chinatown Grocery Store," p. 346; Victor Wong, "Childhood 1930s," in Nick Harvey (ed.), Ting: The Cauldron: Chinese Art and Identity in San Fran-

cisco (San Francisco, 1970), p. 15; Mark and Chih, A Place Called Chinese America, p. 75. 73. Kit King Louis, "Problems of Second Generation Chinese," Sociology and Social Research (January-February 1932), p. 257. Betty Lee Sung, interview, January 4, 1982, Chinese Women of America Research Project, Chinese Culture Foundation of San Francisco, p. 4; Victor Wong, "Childhood II," in Harvey (ed.), Ting, p. 71. 74. Jade Snow Wong, Fifth Chinese Daughter (New York, 1950), p. 178.

Part Three: Transitions

1. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York, 1958), pp. 181-182. For the industrial revolution, see George R. Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1800-1860 (New York, 1962), pp. 63-64, 207,212,228, 249; Marvin M. Fisher, Workshops in the Wilderness: The European Response to American Industrialism, 1830-1860 (New York, 1967), pp. 5, 12; Edward Kirkland, Industry Comes of Age: Business, Labor, and Public Policy, 1860-1897 (New York, 1961), p. 46; Robert Higgs, The Transformation of the American Economy, 1865-1914: An Essay in Interpretation (New York, 1971), pp. 47, 59; Peter Temin, Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America: An Economic Inquiry (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), pp. 166-167, 274. 2. Walter La Feher, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1967), pp. 17, 200; Josiah Strong, Expansion Under New World Conditions (New York, 1900), p. 80; Richard B. Du Boff, "Unemployment in the United States: An Historical Summary," Monthly Review, vol. 29, no. 6 (November 1977), p. 11. 3. Josiah Strong, Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (New York, 1885), pp. 76, 174-175, 30, 40, 43, 44, 53, 57, 84-85, 94, 106,126, 119,139,153,14. 4. Alfred T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660- 1783 (Boston, 1890), pp. 1, 25, 27-33, 57-58, 82-87. 5. Mahan, The Problem of Asia and Its Effect upon International Policies (Boston, 1900), pp. 15, 98; Mahan, Influence of Sea Power, pp. 165- 167; Mahan, The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of a Christian (Boston, 1902), pp. 44, 34. 6. Mahan to Samuel Ashe, April 30, 1879; May 19, 1876; November 13, 1880, December 21, 1882; and March 11, 1885, Mahan-Ashe Papers, Duke University Library; Mahan, quoted in Peter Karsten, The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism (New York, 1972), p. 189. 7. Theodore Roosevelt to Mahan, May 12, 1890, Alfred Thayer Mahan Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C; Mahan to Roosevelt, May 1, 1897, quoted in William E. Livezey, Mahan on Sea Power (Norman,

Okla., 1947), p. 114; Mahan to Roosevelt, March 14, 1898, and Roosevelt to Mahan, March 21, 1898, Alfred Mahan Papers, Library of Congress.

Chapter 9: The "Indian Question"

1. James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1892- 93, Part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1896), p. 26. 2. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (New York, 1970), p. 436. 3. Brown, Bury My Heart, p. 437. 4. James H. McGregor, The Wounded Knee Massacre from the Viewpoint of the Sioux (Minneapolis, 1950), p. 105. 5. McGregor, Wounded Knee Massacre, p. 118; Brown, Bury My Heart, p. 42; Black Elk, Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux, as told to John G. Neihardt (Lincoln, Neb., 1961), pp. 261-262. 6. McGregor, Wounded Knee Massacre, pp. 128, 111; Mooney, Ghost- Dance Religion, pp. 132, 118. 7. McGregor, Wounded Knee Massacre, p. 128; Black Elk, Black Elk Speaks, p. 259. 8. Black Elk, Black Elk Speaks, p. 262; Mooney, Ghost-Dance Religion, p.130. 9. Buffalo Bill, quoted in Jay Monaghan, Custer: The Life of General George Armstrong Custer (Boston, 1959), p. 395; Bismarck Weekly Tribune, quoted in Henry E. Fritz, The Movement for Indian Assimilation, 1860-1890 (Philadelphia, _1963), p. 176. 10. George A. Custer, Wild Life on the Plains and Horrors of Indian Warfare (St. Louis, 1891), pp. 31, 28, 13, 21-22, 215, 226; Custer to Mrs. Custer, April 14, 1867, in Elizabeth Custer, Tenting on the Plains, or General Custer in Kansas and Texas (New York, 1889), pp. 556-59, 628-629; Elizabeth Custer, "Boots and Saddles"; or Life in Dakota with General Custer (New York, 1885), p. 245; Custer, "The Red Man," Custer Papers, Custer Battlefield National Monument, Crow Agency, Montana; Custer, Wild Life, p. 28. 11. Custer, Wild Life, p. 31. 12. Custer, Wild Life, pp. 139-140. 13. Custer, Wild Life, pp. 70, 98; Custer, quoted in Monaghan, Custer, p. 266; Custer, "Boots and Saddles," p. 278; Custer, Tenting on the Plains, pp. lll-112,592,528,579. 14. Custer to Libbie Custer, July 19, 1873, in Ouster, "Boots and Saddles," p. 278; Custer, Wild Life, pp. 21, 14; Custer, Tenting on the Plains, p. 694. 15. Francis Amasa Walker, The Indian Question (Boston, 1874), pp. 34-35, 99.

16. Francis Amasa Walker, Political Economy (New York, 1888), p. 9. 17. Walker, Indian Question, pp. 113-14, 38, 91-92. 18. Francis Amasa Walker, "Our Indians and Mr. Wells," The Nation, vol. 15 (August 1, 1872), p. 73; Walker, Indian Question, pp. 10, 62-63, 64-67; Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man's Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York, 1979), p. 168. 19. Francis Amasa Walker, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1872 (Washington, D.C., 1872), pp. 11, 63, 64, 77-79, 94-95. 20. James P. Munroe, A Life of Francis Amasa Walker (New York, 1923), pp. 135, 25; Walker, Annual Report, p. 11; Walker, Indian Question, pp. 79-80. 21. D.S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands (Norman, Okla., 1973), pp. x, 57, 4, 5, 9, 10, 38, 55; U.S. Statutes at Large, vol. 24, pp. 388-391. 22. Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Lincoln, Neb., 1984), pp. 76, 77. 23. Congressional Record, 49th Cong., 2nd sess., 1887, vol. 18, pp. 189-192, 224-226, 973-974; Congressional Record, 49th Cong., 1st sess., 1887, vol. 17, p. 1634. 24. Hoxie, Final Promise, p. 180. 25. Francis Prucha, Americanizing the American Indians: Writings by the "Friends of the Indian": 1800-1900 (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), pp. 108-109. 26. Otis, Dawes Act, pp. 17, 18, 86, 87; Loring Benson Priest, Uncle Sam's Stepchildren: The Reformation of United States Indian Policy, 1865-1887 (New York, 1972), p. 223. 27. Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981), pp. 11-12. 28. Hoxie, Final Promise, pp. 160, 165. 29. Hoxie, Final Promise, pp. 155, 158. 30. Hoxie, Final Promise, pp. 163, 168. 31. James S. Olson and Raymond Wilson, Native Americans in the Twentieth Century (Provo, Utah, 1984), p. 86. 32. Graham D. Taylor, The New Deal and American Indian Tribalism: The Administration of the Indian Reorganization Act, 1934-45 (Lincoln, Neb., 1980), p. 6; Michael T. Smith, "The Wheeler-Howard Act of 1934: The Indian New Deal," Journal of the West, vol. 10, no. 3 (July 1971), p. 521; Clayton R. Koppes, "From New Deal to Termination: Liberalism and Indian Policy, 1933-1953," Pacific Historical Review, vol. 46, no. 4 (November 1977), p. 5461

33. John Collier, From Every Zenith: A Memoir and Some Essays on Life and Thought (Denver, 1963), pp. 126, 203; Taylor, New Deal

' and American Indian Tribalism, p. x; see also Lawrence C. Kelley, The Navajo Indians and Federal Indian Policy, 1900-1935 (Tucson, Ariz., 1968), p. 150; Donald L. Parman, The Navajos and the New Deal (New Haven, Conn., 1976), pp. 30-31. 34. Collier, From Every Zenith, pp. 129-130; Kelley, Navajo Indians, p. 157; Smith, "Wheeler-Howard Act," p. 525. 35. Koppes, "From New Deal to Termination," p. 551; Smith, "Wheeler- Howard Act," pp. 526, 531; Kelley, Navajo Indians, p. 298; Collier, From Every Zenith, p. 176. 36. Olson and Wilson, Native Americans, p. 123. 37. Peter Nabokov (ed.), Native American Testimony (New York, 1978), p. 203; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Neb., 1983), pp. 212-215. 38. Peter Iverson, The Navajo Nation (Westport, Conn., 1981), p. 9. 39. John Collier, The Indians of the Americas (New York, 1947), p. 280; Taylor, New Deal and American Indian Tribalism, p. 32. 40. Phelps-Stokes Fund, The Navajo Indian Problem (New York, 1939), pp. 8-9; David F. Aberle, The Peyote Religion Among the Navaho (Chicago, 1966), pp. 55-64; Collier, Indians of the Americas, p. 276; Iverson, Navajo Nation, pp. 27, 28. 41. White, Roots of Oppression, pp. 251, 258; Edward H. Spicer, "Sheepmen and Technicians: A Program of Soil Conservation on the Navajo Indian Reservation," in Edward H. Spicer (ed.), Human Problems in Technological Change (New York, 1952), p. 185. 42. Collier, From Every Zenith, p. 252. 43. Parman, Navajos and New Deal, p. 44. 44. Collier, From Every Zenith, p. 252; Taylor, New Deal and American Indian Tribalism, p. 130. 45. Walter Dyk (ed.), Son of Old Man Hat: A Navajo Autobiography (New York, 1938), pp. 78, 103. 46. Evon Z. Vogt, Navaho Veterans: A Study of Changing Values (Cambridge, Mass., 1951), pp. 71, 156, 79. 47. Aberle, Peyote Religion Among the Navaho, pp. 63-64. 48. Spicer, "Sheepmen and Technicians," p. 194; White, Roots of Oppression, pp. 265, 313; Spicer, "Sheepmen and Technicians," p. 193; Nabokov, Native American Testimony, p. 330. 49. White, Roots of Oppression, pp. 272,282. 50. Aberle, Peyote Religion Among the Navaho, p. 64; Iverson, Navajo Nation, p. 23. 51. White, Roots of Oppression, pp. 229, 313; Parman, Navajos and New Deal, p. 45; White, Roots of Oppression, p. 260; "Night Chant," in Paul Jacobs and Saul Landau (eds.), To Serve the Devil: Natives and Strangers, vol. 1 (New York, 1971), p. 41.

Chapter 10: Pacific Crossings

l. Japan Weekly Mail, December 20, 1884, reprinted in Nippu Jiji, Golden Jubilee of the Japanese in Hawaii, 1885-1935 (Honolulu, 1935), n.p.; Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988), p. 45. Ichioka's is the best book on the subject. 2. Kazuo Ito, Issei: A History of the Japanese Immigrants in North America (Seattle, 1973), pp. 27, 38, 29. Ito's study is a massive and wonderful compilation of stories, oral histories, and poems. It is indispensable. 3. Robert Wilson and Bill Hosokawa, East to America: A History of the Japanese in the United States (New York, 1980), pp. 47, 113-114. 4. Eileen Sunada Sarasohn (ed.), The Issei: Portrait of a Pioneer, an Oral History (Palo Alto, Calif., 1983), pp. 44, 31-32. 5. Thomas C. Smith, Nakahara: Family Farming and Population in a Japanese Village, 1717-1830 (Palo Alto, Calif., 1977), pp. 134, 152, 153; Sheila Matsumoto, "Women in Factories," in Joyce Lebra, et al. (eds.), Women in Changing Japan (Boulder, Colo., 1976), pp. 51-53; Sharon L. Sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Modern Japan (Palo Alto, Calif., 1983), pp. 55, 62, 66, 84; Yukiko Hanawa, "The Several Worlds of lssei Women," unpublished M.A. thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 1982, pp. 31-34; Yasuo Wakatsuki, "Japanese Emigration to the United States, 1866-1924," Perspectives in American History, vol. 12 (1979), pp. 401,404; Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, p. 42. 6. Hanawa, Several Worlds, pp. 13-16; Emperor Meiji is quoted in Susan McCain Kataoka, "lssei Women: A Study in Subordinate Status," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1977, p. 6; Akemi Kikumura, Through Harsh Winters: The Life of a Japanese Immigrant Woman (Novato, Calif., 1981), pp. 18, 25; Emma Gee, "lssei: The First Women," in Emma Gee (ed.), Asian Women (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), p. 11. 7. Tsuru Yamauchi is quoted in Ethnic Studies Oral History Project (ed.), Uchinanchu: A History of Okinawans in Hawaii (Honolulu, 1981), pp. 490, 491. 8. Tadashi Fukutake, Japanese Rural Society (Ithaca, N.Y., 1967), pp. 6, 7, 39, 40, 42. 9. Katherine Coman, The History of Contract Labor in the Hawaiian Islands (New York, 1903), p. 42; Alan Moriyama, "Causes of Emigration: The Background of Japanese Emigration to Hawaii, 1885-1894," in Edna Bonacich and Lucie Cheng (eds.), Labor Immigration Under Capitalism: Asian Workers in' the United States before World War II (Berkeley, Calif., 1984), p. 273; Republic of Hawaii, Bureau oflmmigration, Report

(Honolulu, 1886), p. 256; manager of the Hutchinson Sugar Company to W. G. Irwin and Company, February 5, 1902, and January 25, 1905, Hutchinson Plantation Records; for terms of the Gentlemen's Agreement, see Frank Chuman, The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese- Americans (Del Mar, Calif., 1976), pp. 35-36. 10. H. A. Millis, The Japanese Problem in the United States (New York, 1915), p. 86. 11. Sarasohn, The Issei, p. 34; Yuriko Sato, "Emigration of Issei Women" (Berkeley, Calif., 1982), in the Asian American Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley; Ito, Issei, p. 34. 12. Pacific Commercial Advertiser, April 25, 1874; Theo. H. Davies and Company to C. McLennan, July 2, 1890; January 3, 1898, Laupahoehoe Plantation Records, microfilm, University of Hawaii Library; William G. Irwin and Company to George D. Hewitt, October 12, 1894, Hutchinson Plantation Records, microfilm, University of Hawaii Library; vice president of H. Hackfield and Company to G. N. Wilcox, May 5, 1908, Grove Farm Plantation Records, Grove Farm Plantation, Kauai. 13. G. C. Hewitt to W. G. Irwin and Company, March 16, 1896, Hutchinson Plantation Records; Robert Hall, George F. Renton, and George H. Fairfield, in Republic of Hawaii, Report of the Labor Commission on Strikes and Arbitration (Honolulu, 1895), pp. 23-24, 28, 36; H. Hackfield and Company to George Wilcox, September 26, 1896, Grove Farm Plantation Records. 14. Report of the Commission of Labor, in Planters' Monthly, vol. 22, no. 7 (July 1903), p. 296; Walter Giffard to manager of the Hutchinson Sugar Plantation, October 3, 1898, in Wayne K. Patterson, "The Korean Frontier in America: Immigration to Hawaii, 1896-1910," unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1977, p. 100; manager of the Hutchinson Sugar Plantation to W. G. Irwin and Company, April 11, 1905, Hutchinson Plantation Records. 15. Labor committee of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association to the trustees, July 28, 1909, Grove Farm Plantation Records; manager of the Hawaiian Agricultural Company to C. Brewer and Company, August 7 and 27, 1913, Hawaiian Agricultural Company Records, microfilm, University of Hawaii Library. 16. Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, resolution of trustees, November 18, 1904, Grove Farm Plantation Records; Planters' Monthly, vol. 1, no. 7 (October 1882), p. 242; Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report of the Commissioner of Labor on Hawaii (Washington, 1916), pp. 120-153; Machiyo Mitamura, "Life on a Hawaiian Plantation: An Interview," in Social Process in Hawaii, vol. 6 (1940), p. 51. 17. "The Five O'Clock Whistle," in the Kohala Midget, April 27, 1910. 18. Korean woman, in Eun Sik Yang, "Korean Women of America: From Subordination to Partnership, 1903-1930," Amerasia Journal, vol. 11, no. 2 (1984), p. 5; Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, The 1924 Filipino Strike on Kauai (Honolulu, 1979), vol. 2, p. 662.

19. "Plantation Work Begins, Silently, in Early Morn," Honolulu Star Bulletin, January 13, 1934; Minnie Caroline Grant, Scenes in Hawaii (Toronto, 1888), pp. 140-142. 20. Lillian Ota Takaki, daughter of Yukino Takaki, letter to the author, August 10, 1985. 21. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, pp. 360, 520, 513. 22. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Waialua and Haleiwa: The People Tell Their Story (Honolulu, 1977), vol. 8, p. 149. 23. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, p. 488; Andrew Lind, An Island Community (Chicago, 1938), pp. 240-241; song, in Hawaii Herald, February 2, 1973. 24. H. Brett Melendy, Asians in America (Boston, 1977), pp. 86- 87; Mary H. Drout, Hawaii and a Revolution (New York, 1898), pp. 237-238. 25. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Waialua and Haleiwa, vol. 8, p. 167; Yako Morishita, poem, in Jiro Nakano, History of Japanese Short Poems (Tanka, Haiku and Senryu) in Hawaii, unpublished manuscript, 1986, p. 46. 26. Song, in Yukuo Uyehara, "The Horehore-Bushi: A Type of Japanese Folksong Developed and Sung Among the Early Immigrants in Hawaii," in Social Process in Hawaii, vol. 28 (1980-1981), p. 114. 27. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, p. 369. 28. The Higher Wage Question, excerpts reprinted in Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report of the Commissioner of Labor on Hawaii (Washington, 1910), p. 76. 29. Soga, in Honolulu Record, July 7, 1949; Allan Beekman, "Hawaii's Great Japanese Strike," reprinted in Dennis Ogawa (ed.), Kodomo no tame ni (Honolulu, 1978), p. 158. 30. Letter to plantation manager E. K. Bull, signed by ninety-two strikers, May 19, 1909, reprinted in Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report, p. 80; Higher Wage Association, statement, in Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report, p. 68; Higher Wage Question, in Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report, pp. 77-78. 31. Takashi Tsutsumi, History of Hawaii Laborers' Movement (Honolulu, 1922), p. 175. 32. Tsutsumi, Hawaii Laborers' Movement, pp. 217, 224, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243. 33. Tsutsumi, Hawaii Laborers' Movement, pp. 12, 44, 17, 13, 22. 34. Hawaii Laborers' Association, Facts About the Strike on Sugar Plantations in Hawaii (Honolulu, 1920), p. 1. 35. President of C. Brewer and Company to James Campsie, manager of the Hawaiian. Agricultural Company, February 3, 1920, Hawaiian Agricultural Company Records; R. D. Mead, director of the Labor Bureau, to manager of Grove Farm Plantation, February 13, 1920, Grove Farm Plantation Records.

36. Interview with Tadao Okada by the author, July 1980. 37. Milton Murayama, All I Asking for Is My Body (San Francisco, 1975), pp. 28, 96. 38. Richard Okawa, interviews, February 1978 and July 1980; Minoru Takaki, interview, July 1985. 39. Yasutaro Soga, Looking Backward 50 Years in Hawaii, reprinted in Honolulu Record, March 31, 1949; Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, pp. 363, 489. 40. C. Brewer and Company to W. G. Ogg, August 2, 1916, Hawaiian Agricultural Company Records; Donald S. Bowman to Grove Farm Plantation, September 15, 1920, Grove Farm Plantation Records; W. Pfotenhauser, "President's Address," in The Hawaiian Planters' Record, vol. 4, no. 1 (January 1911), p. 4; Donald S. Bowman, "Housing the Plantation Worker," in The Hawaiian Planters' Record, vol. 22, no. 4 (April 1920), pp. 202-203. 41. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, p. 382; Ito, Issei, p. 21. 42. Murayama,All I Asking for Is My Body, p. 45. 43. Manager of the Hawaiian Agricultural Company to C. Brewer and Company, October 17 and November 2, 1911, Hawaiian Agricultural Company Records; H. Hackfield and Company to George Wilcox, April 25, 1900, Grove Farm Plantation Records. 44. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, p. 387; Mrs. Joe Rapozo, in Honolulu Advertiser, July 6, 1973; Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Waialua and Haleiwa, vol. 8, p. 64, and vol. 9, p. 223. 45. Manager of the Hawaiian Agricultural Company to Bureau of Labor, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, April 5, 1919, Hawaiian Agricultural Company Records; interviews, in Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu, pp. 415, 470; William C. Smith, "Pidgin English in Hawaii," American Speech, vols. 8-9, February 1933, pp. 15-19; Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Waialua and Haleiwa, vol. 3, p. 11. 46. Daniel K. Inouye, Journey to Washington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1967), pp. 24-25; Aiko Mifune, interview, February 18, 1988; Minoru Takaki and Susumu Takaki, interview on the Puunene Plantation, July 1985; Jeanette Takaki Watanabe, interview, March 14, 1987. 47. Ray Stannard Baker, "Human Nature in Hawaii: How the Few Want the Many to Work for Them-Perpetually, and at Low Wages," American Magazine, vol. 73 (January 1912), p. 330. 48. Curtis Aller, "The Evolution of Hawaiian Labor Relations: From Benevolent Paternalism to Mature Collective Bargaining," unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, 1958, p. 39. 49. William C. Smith, Americans in Process: A Study of Our Citizens of Oriental Ancestry (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1937), p. 52. 50. Lillian Takaki Ota, interview with her nephew and author, May 1986; Ellen Kasai, interview with author, August 1986.

51. Song, in Hawaii Herald, February 2, 1973. 52. William C. Smith, The Second Generation Oriental in America (Honolulu, 1927), p. 21. 53. Ito, Issei, p. 446. 54. Immigration Commission, Japanese and Other Immigrant Races, vol. 1, p. 80. 55. Ichioka, Issei, p. 121. 56. Paul S. Taylor and Tom Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," Rural Sociology, vol. 1 (September 1936), p. 286; Gerald D. Nash, "Stages of California's Economic Growth, 1870-1970: An Interpretation," California Historical Quarterly (winter 1972), pp. 318-319. 57. Ito, Issei, pp. 250, 280. 58. Ito, Issei, pp. 251, 442, 255; Yukiko Hanawa, The Several Worlds of Issei Women, unpublished M.A. thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 1982, p. 86. 59. "Interview with Mr. S. Nitta," 1924, p. 2, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library; Bill Hosokawa, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (New York, 1969), p. 61. 60. Kiyoshi K. Kawakami, Asia at the Door: A Study of the Japanese Question in Continental United States, Hawaii and Canada (New York, 1914), p. 99; San Francisco Chronicle, June 25, 1912; Kiyoshi Kawakami, "How California Treats the Japanese," The Independent, vol. 74 (May 8, 1913), p. 1020; "Visit with Mr. George Shima, 'Potato King' of California," interview, July 14, 1924, pp. 1-3, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library. 61. Ichioka, Issei, p. 61. 62. Ichioka, Issei, pp. 147, 148. 63. Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960 (Livingston, Calif., 1981), p.18. 64. Noda, Yamato Colony, p. 18. 65. Ichioka, Issei, p. 148; Noda, Yamato Colony, pp. 10, 18, 40, 65, 174; Ito, Issei, p. 132. 66. Yuji Ichioka, "The Early Japanese Immigrant Quest for Citizenship: The Background of the 1922 Ozawa Case," Amerasia Journal, vol. 4, no. 2 (1977), p. 12; Ichioka, "Early Japanese Immigrant Quest for Citizenship," pp. 10, 11, 17; Yamato Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States (New York, 1969), p. 298; Ozawa vs. United States, Decision of the Court, November 13, 1922, reprinted in appendix, Mears, Resident Orientals, pp. 509, 513, 514.

67. Japanese American Courier, January 21, 1933; Ichioka, Issei, p. 247; "Message from Japan to America," Japan Times and Mail, October 1, 1924, reprinted in appendix, Mears, Resident Orientals, pp. 516-518; "Interview with R. Oµe, Japanese foreman," pp. 12, 18, Survey of Race Relations, 1924, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library; "Life History of a Japanese Man at Santa Paula, California," December 29, 1924, p. 4, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University.

68. Ito, Issei, pp. 884, 429, 491, 889. 69. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, pp. 321-322; Jerrold Takahashi, "Changing Responses to Racial Subordination: An Exploratory Study of Japanese American Political Styles," unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1980, p. 107. 70. Japanese American Courier, January 21, 1933; Ito, Issei, pp. 274, 449, 497; "Life History of Dr. Peter S __ of Los Angeles," pp. 2-3, 1925, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library; "Interview with Yamato Ichihashi," p. 1, in Survey of Race Relations; "Life History of a Japanese Man at Santa Paula, California," December 29, 1924, p. 2, in Survey of Race Relations; S. Morris Morishita, in William C. Smith, Americans in Process: A Study of Our Citizens of Oriental Ancestry (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1937), p. 112; Hosokawa, Nisei, p. 136. 71. Fred Korematsu, "Views from Within," A Symposium on the Japanese American Internment Experience, University of California, Berkeley, September 19, 1987; Kay Yasui, "'Jap!' 'Jap!' 'Jap!'" Pacific Citizen, January 15, 1931; interviews with Mary Tsukamoto and Donald Nakahata, in John Tateishi, And Justice for All: An Oral History of the Japanese American Detention Camps (New York, 1984), pp. 5, 36; Toyo Tanaka, "How to Survive Racism in America's Free Society," in Arthur A. Hansen and Betty F. Mitson (eds.), Voices Long Silent: An Oral Inquiry into the Japanese American Evacuation (Fullerton, Calif., 1974), pp. 84, 90; "An American Born Japanese in America," an interview with J. Sato, pp. 2-3, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library. 72. Report on Vocational Guidance Issue by Kojiro Unoura, in Japanese American Courier, September 10, 1938; Eliot G. Mears, Resident Orientals on the American Pacific Coast: Their Legal and Economic Status (New York, 1927), pp. 199, 200; John Modell, Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation, pp. 132, 137-138; Yori Wada, "Growing Up in Central California," Amerasia, vol. 13, no. 2 (1986/7), p. 12; "Interview with Miss Esther B. Bartlett ofY.W.C.A.," December 12, 1924, p. 5, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library. 73. Monica Sone, Nisei Daughter (Boston, 1953), pp. 8-10, 11, 22, 60-63. 74. Sone, Nisei Daughter, pp. 70, 52. 75. Sone, Nisei Daughter, pp. 38, 114, 115, 119, 122. 76. Sone, Nisei Daughter, pp. 121, 133.

Chapter 11: The Exodus from Russia

1. Abraham Cahan, The Education of Abraham Cahan, translated by Leon Stein, Abraham P. Conan, and Lynn Davison (Philadelphia, 1969),

p. 184. The phrase "two endless days" comes from the definitive study and classic by Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers: The Journey of the East European Jews to America and the Life They Found and Made (New York, 1983), p. 12, which I found indispensable and inspirational. For important analyses that focus on Jewish women, see Sidney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (New York, 1988), and Susan A. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990). 2. Mary Antin, The Promised Land (New York, 1980; originally published in 1911), pp. 5, 22; Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 10. 3. Sydelle Kramer and Jenny Masur (eds.), Jewish Grandmothers (Boston, 1976), p. 64; Golda Meir, in Maxine Schwartz Seller (ed.), Immigrant Women (Philadelphia, 1981), p. 37; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 43; Ronald Sanders, Shores of Refuge: A Hundred Years of Jewish Emigration (New Yo:rk, 1988), p. 213; Cahan, Education, pp. 158, 182. 4. Song, "Purim Gifts," in Mark Slobin, Tenement Songs: The Popular Music of the Jewish Immigrants (Urbana, Ill., 1982), p. 155. 5. Abraham Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky (New York, 1960; originally published in 1917), pp. 59-61; Anzia Yezierska, Children of Loneliness (New York, 1923), p. 152; Mary Antin, quoted in Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 27; Antin, Promised Land, p. 142. 6. Cahan, Education, pp. 187, 186; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 46, 47; Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 73; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, 1985), p. 54. 7. Antin, Promised Land, pp. 168-169; Cahan, Education, pp. 195, 188. 8. Sanders, Shores of Refuge, p. 66; Milton Meltzer, Taking Root: Jewish Immigrants in America (New York, 1976), p. 36; Cahan, Education, pp. 214,215, 196; see also Howe, World of Our Fathers, pp. 39-41. 9. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 12; Cahan, Education, p. 196. My thanks to my friend Larry Friedman for the phrase "countryless people." 10. "The Life Story of a Polish Sweatshop Girl," in Hamilton Holt (ed.), The Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans as Told by Themselves (New York, 1906), p. 36; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, pp. 86, 87; Sanders, Shores of Refuge, p. 161. 11. Klaperman, quoted in Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (New York, 1981), p. 82. 12. For statistics, see Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 47; Thomas Kessner, The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880-1915 (New York, 1977), p. 33; and Sydney Stahl Weinberg, The World of Our Mothers: The Lives of Jewish Immigrant Women (New York, 1988), p. 76; Howe, World ?f Our Fathers, p. 59.

13. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 54, 137-138; Deborah Dash Moore, At Home in America: Second Generation New York Jews (New York, 1981), p. 29; Meltzer, Taking Roots, p. 65; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, p. 93. 14. Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, pp. 512, 93; Meltzer, Taking Root, p. 64; Kramer and Masur (eds.), Jewish Grandmothers, pp. 131, 132. 15. Isaac Raboy, in Irving Howe and Kenneth Libo (eds.), How We Lived: A Documentary History of Immigrant Jews in America, 1880-1930 (New York, 1979), p. 29. 16. Moses Rischin, The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977; originally published in 1962), pp. 79, 82-83. 17. Rischin, Promised City, pp. 84, 87; Howe, World of Our Fathers, p.152. 18. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 212. 19. Howe, World of Our Fathers, pp. 72,184,239,213; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, p. 459. 20. Isaac Raboy, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p. 26; Rischin, Promised City, p. 55; Michael Kraus, Immigration, The American Mosaic (New York, 1966), p. 168. 21. Anzia Yezierska, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p. 19; Rischin, Promised City, p. 55. 22. Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, pp. 97, 107. 23. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 80. 24. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 60. 25. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 92; Rischin, Promised City, pp. 63, 67. 26. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 95; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, p. 443. 27. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 90, 94, 64; Rischin, Promised City, p. 61; Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 81. 28. Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, p. 151; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 94; Ray Stannard Baker, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p. 153. 29. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 100, 104, 101; Meltzer, Taking Root, pp. 111-112; Bella Feiner, in Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars, p. 245. 30. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 101, 152; Marie Ganz, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p. 136; Anzia Yezierska, Children of Loneliness (New York, 1923), p. 158. 31. Mollie Linker, in Sydelle Kramer and Jenny Masur (eds.), Jewish Grandmothers (Boston, 1976), p. 95; "Life Story of a Polish Sweatshop Girl," in Holt, Life Stories, p. 43. 32. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 103; Anzia Yezierska, in Kramer and Masur, Jewish Grandmothers, p. 45; Morris Rosenfield, poem, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p. 157.

33. Meltzer, Taking Root, pp. 111-112; "Life Story of a Polish Sweatshop Girl," in Holt, Life Stories, p. 44. 34. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 49, 19, 21, 22, 26; Fannie Shapiro, in Kramer and Masur, Jewish Grandmothers, p. 10. 35. "Life Story of a Polish Sweatshop Girl," in Holt, Life Stories, pp. 42,46. 36. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 80, 87, 138-139. 37. Forward, March 26, 1911, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p. 185; Rischin, Promised City, p. 253; Meltzer, Taking Roots, pp. 231, 233. 38. Mothers' laments, "Mamenyu! Including an Elegy to the Triangle Fire Victims," in Mark Slobin, Tenement Songs: The Popular Music of the Jewish Immigrants (Urbana, Ill., 1982), p. 134; poem by Morris Rosenfeld, in Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 305. 39. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 49; reporter, in Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars, p. 260. 40. Clara Lemlich, in Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 298, and in Howard M. Sachar, A History of the Jews in America (New York, 1992), p. 183; Benjamin Feigenbaum, in Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 187. 41. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 205. 42. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 172; Howe, World of Our Fathers, pp. 299-300; poem "The Uprising of the 20,000" in Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars, p. 242. 43. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 302. 44. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 169. 45. Immigrant's recollection, in Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 204; Paul Novick, in Howe, World of Our Fathers, pp. 306,302. 46. Immigrant, in Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 83; Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 121. 47. John Murray Cuddihy, The Ordeal of Civility: Freud, Marx, Levi Strauss, and the Jewish Struggle with Modernity (Boston, 1987), pp. xi, 13, 165, 166; Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, 1990), p. 98. 48. Cuddihy, Ordeal of Civility, p. 13; Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars, p. 68; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, pp. 93, 94, 101; "Life Story of a Polish Sweatshop Girl," in Holt, Life Stories, p. 46. 49. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 128; Jewish mother, in Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars, p. 72; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky,pp. 172,93,94,101,129,176. 50. Howe, World of Our Fathers, pp. 128, 181; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, p. 43; Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 114; Meltzer, Taking Root, pp. 142-143; Antin, Promised Land, p. 188. 51. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, pp. 4, 15, 126, 42, 77. 52. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, p. 116; Commercial Advertiser, September 25, 1899, and the Forward in Howe and Libo, How We Lived,

pp. 77, 78; Maurice Samuel, poem, in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, p.115. 53. Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, pp. 404, 337. 54. Statistics and quote from immigrant woman, in Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 74, 75. 55. Immigrant daughter, in Weinberg, World of Our Mothers, p. 105; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 67; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, pp. 108, 106; Mollie Linker, in Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 1, and in Kramer and Masur, Jewish Grandmothers, p. 100; Ruth Katz, in Kramer and Masur, Jewish Grandmothers, pp. 148, 149. 56. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, p. 77; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, p. 108. 57. Selma C. Berrol, "Education and Economic Mobility: The Jewish Experience in New York City, 1880-1920," American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 65 (March 1976), p. 271; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, p.102. 58. Daily Forward, in Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 226. 59. Thomas Kessner, The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880-1915 (New York, 1977), p. 170; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, pp. 83, 84. 60. Kessner, Golden Door, p. 98; Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 228. 61. Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, pp. 234, 242. 62. A. Lawrence Lowell, to Professor William E. Hocking, May 19, 1922, and A. Lawrence Lowell, to Judge Julian Mack, March 29, 1922, in Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, pp. 245, 241. See also Marcial Graham Synnott, The Half Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1900-1970 (Westport, Conn., 1979), pp. 27, 36, 112. 63. A. Lawrence Lowell, New York Times, June 17, 1922, in Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, pp. 241, 240; Sachar, History of the Jews in America, pp. 322-324. 64. Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 248; Synnott, HalfOpened Door, pp. 109-110, 112. 65. Mayor James Michael Curley, in Synnott, HalfOpened Door, p. 77. 66. Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 126. 67. John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), p. 158. 68. Higham, Send These to Me, pp. 109, 166, 114; Sachar, History of the Jews in America, p. 321; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1966), pp. 67, 93. 69. Horace Kallen, in Steinberg, Ethnic Myth, p. 246; Higham, Send These to Me, pp. 169, 145, 135; Sachar, History of the Jews in America, p. 331. 70. Quoted in Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966), pp. 88-89.

71. Deborah Dash Moore, At Home in America: Second Generation New York Jews (New York, 1981), pp. 24, 42, 43. 72. Moore, At Home in America, pp. 20, 23, 28. 73. Moore, At Home in America, pp. 30, 38; Cahan, Rise of David Levinsky, p. 512. 74. F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby (New York, 1953), p. 182.

Chapter 12: El Norte

1. Mario T. Garcia, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920 (New Haven, Conn., 1981), pp. 37, 39. 2. Ricardo Romo, East Los Angeles: History of a Barrio (Austin, Tex., 1983), p. 48; Lawrence A. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897-1931 (Tucson, Ariz., 1980), p. 80. 3. Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 146; Manuel Gamio, The Mexican Immigrant: His Life Story (Chicago, 1931), p. 15. 4. Romo, East Los Angeles, p. 45. 5. Romo, East Los Angeles, pp. 32, 37, 36, 52; Cardoso, Mexican Emigration, pp. 6, 75. 6. Romo, East Los Angeles, p. 48; Garcia, Desert Immigrants, p. 41; Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 2, 46, 67. 7. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 69-70; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 156; Garcia, Desert Immigrants, p. 39; Romo, East Los Angeles, pp. 57, 40. 8. Romo, East Los Angeles, pp. 32, 36; David J. Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1973), p. 260; Mario Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality (Notre Dame, Ind., 1979), p. 71. 9. Manuel Gamio, Mexican Immigration to the United States (Chicago, 1930), pp. 91-92. 10. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration, p. 82; Romo, East Los Angeles, p. 52; Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest, p. 75; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), p. 269; Ernesto Galarza, Barrio Boy: The Story of a Boy's Acculturation (Notre Dame, Ind., 1971), p. 200. 11. Marilyn P. Davis, Mexican Voices, American Dreams: An Oral History of Mexican Immigration to the United States (New York, 1990), p. 8; Cardoso, Mexican Emigration, pp. 76-77. 12. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, p. 124. 13. Barrera, Race ·and Class in the Southwest, p. 86; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 172; Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 97-98. 14. Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest, p. 89; Camarillo,

Chicanos in a Changing Society, pp. 211-212, 176; Garcia, Desert Immigrants, p. 87. 15. Vicki L. Ruiz, "A Promise Fulfilled: Mexican Cannery Workers in Southern California," in Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz (eds.), Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History (New York, 1990), p. 265; Edith Summers Kelley, "The Head-Cutters," in appendix, Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1987), pp. 125-127. 16. Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest, p. 91; Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, pp. 101, 100-102, 97; Garcia, Desert Immigrants, pp. 57, 68. 17. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, pp. 176, 175, 87; Carey Mc Williams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1971), pp. 127-128, 131; Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929-1939 (Tucson, Ariz., 1974), p. 10; Cardoso, Mexican Emigration, p. 25. 18. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), pp. 172, 184-185, 199; Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, pp. 77, 11. 19. Devra A. Weber, "Mexican Women on Strike: Memory, History and Oral Narrative," in Alelaida R. Del Castillo (ed.), Between Borders: Essays on Mexicana/Chicana History (Encino, Calif., 1990), p. 183. 20. Galarza, Barrio Boy, pp. 261-262; Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, p. 56. 21. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, pp. 84, 85. 22. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, p. 235. 23. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, p. 240. 24. Weber, "Mexican Women on Strike," pp. 186, 192. 25. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 149, 147. 26. Leonard Greenwood, "El Centro's Community of Sikhs Dying Out," Los Angeles Times, December 28, 1966; Agnes Foster Buchanan, "The West and the Hindu Invasion," in Overland Monthly, vol. 51, no. 4 (April 1908), pp. 308-313; H. A. Millis, "East Indian Immigration to the Pacific Coast," in Survey, vol. 28 (1912), p. 379; Herman Scheffauer, "The Tide of Turbans," Forum, vol. 43 (June 1910), pp. 616-618. 27. H. Brett Melendy, Asians in America: Filipinos, Koreans, and East Indians (Boston, 1977), p. 227; Millis, "East Indian Immigration," pp. 384-385. 28. Annette Thackwell Johnson, "'Ragheads' -A Picture of America's East Indians," in the Independent, vol. 109 (October 28, 1922), p. 234; Bruce La Brack, "Occupational Specialization among Rural California Sikhs: The Interplay of Culture and Economics," in Amerasia, vol. 9, no. 2 (1982), p. 39; Dhan Gopal Mjkerji, Caste and Outcast (New York, 1923), pp. 269-270.

29. Bruce La Brack, "Immigration Law and the Revitalization Process: The Case of the California Sikhs," in S. Chandrasekhar, From India to America (La Jolla, Calif., 1982), p. 60; United States Immigration Commission, Japanese and East Indians (Washington, D.C., 1911), p. 339; Saint Nihal Singh, "The Picturesque Immigrant from India's Coral Strand," in Out West, vol. 30 (1909), p. 45; Bill Strobel, "California's Sikhs: The Pride and the Prejudice," in California Today, the magazine of the San Jose Mercury News, May 27, 1979; Greenwood, "El Centro's Community of Sikhs Dying Out"; Sucheta Mazumdar, "Punjabi Agricultural Workers in California, 1905-1945," in Lucie Cheng and Edna Bonacich (eds.), Labor Immigration Under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States before World War II (Berkeley, Calif., 1984), p. 572. 30. Rajani Kanta Das, Hindustani Workers on the Pacific Coast (Berlin, 1923), p. 110; information about Lahar Bupara from Roberto Haro, interview, September 6, 1988; "Interview with lnder Singh," p. 1, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives; Salim Khan, "A Brief History of Pakistanis in the Western United States," unpublished M.A. thesis, Sacramento (Calif.) State University, 1981, p. 46; "Moala Singh: Segments from His Life Story," in appendix, Karen Leonard, "Changes in Meaning for Immigrant Punjabis in Early 20th Century California" (paper for Conference on Anthropology of Experience, Feelings, and Emotion in South Asia; Houston, Texas, December 1985), p. 19; Sucha Singh, interview, August 8, 1924, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Library. 31. Karen Leonard, "Marriage and Family Life Among Early Asian Indian Immigrants," in S. Chandrasekhar, From India to America, p. 73; Roberto Haro, interview, September 6, 1988; Bruce La Brack and Karen Leonard, "Conflict and Compatibility in Punjabi-Mexican Immigrant Families in Rural California, 1915-1965," Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 46 (August 1984), p. 530; "Moola Singh: Segments from His Life Story," in appendix, Leonard, "Changes in Meaning for Immigrant Punjabis," p. 25; Sucha Singh, interview, Survey of Race Relations, Stanford University, Hoover Institution Archives. 32. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, p. 177. 33. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, pp. 226-227, 221, 194. 34. Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-1940 (New York, 1987), p. 141; Rosalinda M. Gonzalez, "Chicanas and Mexican Immigrant Familes, 1920-1940: Women's Subordination and Family Exploitation," in Lois Scharf and Joan M. Jensen (eds.), Decades of Discontent: The Women's Movement, 1920-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1983), p. 66. 35. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, pp. 192-193. 36. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 222-223; Garcia, Desert Immigrant, p. 125. 37. Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 211.

38. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 44, 132; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, p. 139. 39. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, pp. 152, 155, 153, 155, 156, 205. 40. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, p. 156. 41. Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, pp. 154, 182-183. 42. Garcia, Desert Immigrants, pp. 104, 101. 43. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration, p. 146. 44. Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 163; Hoffman, Unwanted Americans, p. 95; Carey McWilliams, "Getting Rid of the Mexican," in Wayne Moquin (ed.), A Documentary History of the Mexican Americans (New York, 1971), p. 297; Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, p. 203. 45. Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 200. 46. Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 62; Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 206; Arnold De Leon, The Tejano Community, 1836-1900 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1982), pp. 180-181. 47. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, p. 28; De Leon, Tejano Community, p.160. 48. Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society, p. 169; Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 201. 49. De Leon, Tejano Community, p. 65; Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 201. 50. Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, p. 26. 51. Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 239. 52. Galarza, Barrio Boy, pp. 12, 19, 23, 42. 53. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, p. 31; Gamio, Mexican Immigrant, pp. 13, 182, 104; Reisler, Sweat of Their Brow, p. 113. 54. Galarza, Barrio Boy, p. 12.

Chapter 13: To "the Land of Hope"

1. Zora Neale Hurston, Jonah's Gourd Vine (New York, 1990; originally published in 1934), pp. 147-148; Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (New York, 1976), p. 49. 2. Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York, 1890-1930 (New York, 1965), p. 17. This is the best book on the subject. 3. Emmett J. Scott, Negro Migration During the War (London, 1920), pp. 41, 48; Henri, Black Migration, p. 72; Arna Bontemps and Jack Conroy,Anyplace But Here (New York, 1945), p. 163. 4. Scott, Negro Migration, pp. 42-43. 5. Bontemps and Conroy, Anyplace But Here, p. 163; Zora Neale Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road (New York, 1991; originally published in 1942), p. 7; Osofsky, Harlem, p. 23; Henri, Black Migration, p. 51. 6. St. Claire Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York, 1962), vol. 1, p. 60; Ray Stannard Baker, "The Negro Goes North," World's Work, vol. 34 (July 1917), p. 315.

7. Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago, 1967), p. 135; Scott, Negro Migration, pp. 17-18. 8. Emmett J. Scott (ed.), "Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916-18," Journal of Negro History, vol. 4 (July and October 1919), p. 413. 9. Scott (ed.), "Letters of Negro Migrants," p. 459; Spear, Black Chicago, p. 133; Baker, "Negro Goes North," p. 314. 10. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 24, 26. 11. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 21, 24-25. 12. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 137. 13. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 21, 22; Ray Stannard Baker, Following the Color Line (New York, 1964; originally published in 1908), p. 112; Baker, "Negro Goes North," p. 316; Bontemps and Conroy, Anyplace But Here, p.163. 14. Osofsky, Harlem, p. 23; Scott, Negro Migration, p. 31; Scott, "Letters of Negro Migrants," pp. 329,438,298. 15. Osofsky, Harlem, p. 21; Richard Wright, "Introduction," in Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, xvii; Toni Morrison, Jazz (New York, 1992), pp. 33, 7. 16. Baker, "Negro Goes North," p. 319. 17. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 136-137. 18. Hurston, Jonah's Gourd Vine, p. 151. 19. James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989), p. 110; Osofsky, Harlem, p. 31. Grossman's is a human portrait of these migrants in Chicago. 20. Scott, Negro Migration, p. 102. 21. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 177. This book and also Spear, Black Chicago, are the standard works. 22. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 22, 140, 202. 23. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 209, 210. 24. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 181. 25. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 29, 39. 26. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 151, 157-158. 27. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 305. 28. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 306. 29. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 163. 30. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 211. 31. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 213. 32. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 66. 33. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 221; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 80. 34. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 94, 95. 35. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 105-110. 36. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 105, 130, 122. 37. Osofsky, Harlem, p. 136. 38. Osofsky, Harlem, pp. 127, 122; Edmund David Cronon, Black

Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Madison, Wis., 1966), p. 70. Cronon's biography is a useful narrative. 39. Marcus Garvey, "The Negro's Greatest Enemy," Current History, vol. 18 (September 192?), pp. 951-953. 40. Garvey, "Negro's Greatest Enemy," pp. 953-954. 41. Cronon, Black Moses, p. 206. 42. Cronon, Black Moses, pp. 176, 39, 65, 68; see also Amy Jacques- Garvey (ed.), The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey (New York, 1969), pp. 79, 93. 43. Cronon, Black Moses, pp. 52, 114. 44. Garvey, "Negro's Greatest Enemy," p. 955; Cronon, Black Moses, pp. 136, 142. 45. Cronon, Black Moses, p. 136. 46. Nathan Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York, 1971), p. 24; Osofsky, Harlem, p. 181. 47. Robert Bone, The Negro Novel in America (New Haven, Conn., 1958), pp. 45, 33, 53; Langston Hughes, The Langston Hughes Reader (New York, 1958), p. 341; Huggins, Harlem Renaissance, p. 58. 48. Langston Hughes, "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain," The Nation, vol. 122, no. 3181 (June 23, 1926), pp. 692-694. 49. Hughes, "Negro Artist and Racial Mountain," pp. 692-694. 50. Hughes, "Afro-American Fragment," in Hughes, Poetry of the Negro, p. 102; Huggins, Harlem Renaissance, pp. 179, 82. 51. Hughes, "The Negro Speaks of Rivers," in Hughes, Poetry of the Negro, pp. 105-106. 52. Arna Bontemps, "Introduction," in Jean Toomer, Cane (New York, 1969), p. viii. 53. Toomer, Cane, pp. 10, 107-116. 54. Darwin Turner, "Introduction," in Jean Toomer, Cane (New York, 1975), p. x; Bontemps, "Introduction," pp. xiii-xv; Hughes, Hughes Reader, p. 380. 55. Zora Neale Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road, p. 121; Robert E. Hemenway, Zora Neale Hurston: A Literary Biography (Urbana, Ill., 1977), p. 31. 56. Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God, pp. 48, 49, 87, 110, 111. 57. Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road, p. 151. 58. Hughes, Hughes Reader, p. 383. 59. Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue (New York, 1978), pp. 35, 36. Sitkoffs study and Raymond Wolters, Negroes and the Great Depression: The Problem of Economic Recovery (Westport, Conn., 1970), are the two most useful books on the subject. 60. Sitkoff, New Deal for Blacks, pp. 37, 39. 61. Wolters, Negroes and the Great Depression, pp. 91, 92.

62. Sitkoff, New Deal for Blacks, pp. 54, 55, 56-57. 63. Francis L. Broderick, W. E. B. Du Bois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis (Palo Alto, Calif., 1959), p. 189; Wolters, Negroes and the Great Depression, p. 250. 64. Broderick, Du Bois, pp. 165-179; Sitkoff, New Deal for Blacks, pp. 251, 252, 254, 179-186; Wolters, Negroes and the Great Depression, pp. 236-240, 258. 65. Sitkoff, New Deal for Blacks, pp. 69, 72, 97, 95.

Part Four: Transformations

1. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (New York, 1965), p. v. 2. M. F. Ashley Montagu, Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York, 1942), pp. 179-180; Ruth Benedict and Gene Weltfish, The Races of Mankind (New York, 1943), p. 31. 3. Richard Pollenberg, One Nation Divisible: Class, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States Since 1938 (New York, 1980), pp. 47, 71; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1962; originally published in 1944), p. 1009; Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade (New York, 1978), p. 311. 4. Myrdal, American Dilemma, pp. 1004, 1021.

Chapter 14: World War II

1. Franklin D. Roosevelt, "The Four Freedoms," Address to Congress, January 6, 1941, Congressional Record, 1941, vol. 87, pt. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1941). 2. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration ofWar Against Japan, December 8, 1941, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. 3. Robert A. Wilson and Bill Hosokawa, East to America: A History of the Japanese in the United States (New York, 1980), p. 154; Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Washington, D.C., 1982), p. 264. 4. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, p. 265. 5. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 270, 272, 274. 6. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, p. 272. 7. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, p. 55. 8. Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps USA: Japanese Americans

and World War II (New York, 1971), pp. 45-46; Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 75, 78. 9. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 78, 79. 10. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 66, 85. 11. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 111, 121; Robert Matsui, speech in the House of Representatives on the 442 bill for redress and reparations, September 7, 1987, Congressional Record (Washington, D.C., 1987), p. 7584; poem by Sojin, in Constance Hayashi and Keiho Yamanaka, "Footprints: Poetry of the American Relocation Camp Experience," Amerasia Journal, vol. 3, no. 2 (1976), p.115. 12. Minoru Yasui, interview, in John Tateishi, And Justice for All: An Oral History of the Japanese American Detention Camps (New York, 1984), pp. 70-71; Gordon Hirabayashi, "Growing Up American in Washington," the spring 1988 Pettyjohn Distinguished Lecture, Washington State University, March 24, 1988; Hirabayashi, interview by author, March 24, 1988. 13. Poem by Keiho Soga, in Jiro Nakano and Kay Nakano (eds. and translators), Poets Behind Barbed Wire (Honolulu, 1983), p. 19; letter by Congressman Norman Mineta's father, quoted in his speech to the House of Representatives, September 17, 1987, Congressional Record (Washington, D.C., 1987), p. 7585; Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, p. 135. 14. Yasui and Tsukamoto, interviews, in Tateishi, And Justice for All, pp. 73, 12, 74; poem by Hakujaku, in Hayashi and Yamanaka, "Footprints," p. 116; Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 139, 142, 147. 15. Yasui, interview, in Tateishi, And Justice for All, p. 76. 16. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, p. 160; poem by Nikaido Gensui, in Hayashi and Yamanaka, "Footprints," p.116. 17. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 172, 176. 18. Miyo Senzaki, interview, in Tateishi, And Justice for All, p. 104. 19. Jacobus tenBroek, Edward Barnhart, and Floyd Matson, Prejudice, War, and the Constitution: Causes and Consequences of the Evacuation of the Japanese Americans in World War II (Berkeley, 1970), p. 150; Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 189, 191. 20. Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, pp. 191-192; poem by Sunada Toshu, in Hayashi and Yamanaka, "Footprints," p. 116. 21. Andrew Lind, Hawaii's Japanese: An Experiment in Democracy (Princeton, 1946), p. 161.

22. Minoru Hinahara, interview by author, July 3, 1988; Chester Tanaka, Go For Broke: A Pictorial History of the Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442d Regimental Combat Team (Richmond, Calif., 1982), p. 100. 23. Daniel K. Inouye, Journey to Washington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1967), pp. 151-152. 24. Lind, Hawaii's Japanese, p. 158. 25. Tanaka, Go For Broke, p. 171; Frank Chuman, The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese-Americans (Del Mar, Calif.), pp. 343-344. 26. Aiko Mifune, interviews by author, February 18, 1988, and March 29, 1988; Commission on Wartime Relocation, Personal Justice Denied, p. 242; poem by Keiho Soga, in Nakano and Nakano, Poets Behind Barbed Wire, p. 64. 27. Philip McGuire (ed.), Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War II (Lexington, Ky., 1993), p. xxiii; Brenda L. Moore, To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race: The Story of the Only African American WACs Stationed Overseas During World War II (New York, 1996), p. 29. 28. Herbert Shapiro, White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery (Amherst, Mass., 1988), p. 303; Crisis, October 9, 1940. 29. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., "Is This a White Man's War?" Common Sense, April 1942, p. 112; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), p. 1007; Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue (New York, 1978), pp. 301, 324. 30. Private Bert Babero, letter to Truman K. Gibson, February 13, 1994, in McGuire (ed.), Taps for a Jim Crow Army, p. 50; letter to NAACP quoted in Lucille B. Milner, "Jim Crow in the Army," New Republic 110 (March 13, 1944), p. 339; Horace R. Cayton, "Fighting for White Folks?" The Nation, vol. 155 (September 26, 1942), p. 268. 31. Babero, letter to Gibson, February 13, 1994, in McGuire (ed.), Taps for a Jim Crow Army, p. 52; "A Negro Soldier," letter dated September 27, 1943, published in the Baltimore Afro-American, reprinted in McGuire (ed.), Taps for a Jim Crow Army, pp. 19-20. 32. 328th Aviation Squadron, letter to the Richmond Afro-American, November 22, 1943, reprinted in McGuire (ed.), Taps for a Jim Crow Army, pp. 67-69. 33. Timeul Black, interview, in Studs Terkel, "The Good War": An Oral History of World War Two (New York, 1984), pp. 274-279. 34. Stanley Sandler, Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WW II (Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 13; Fred Smith, interview with author, August 30, 1998. 35. Pittsburgh Courier, January 31, 1942; William H. Hastie, "Why I Resigned," Chicago Defender, February 6, 1943.

36. Sandler, Segregated Skies, p. 60. 37. Coleman Young, interview, in Terkel, "The Good War," p. 344. 38. Lou Potter, Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts in World War II (New York, 1992), p. 111. 39. Potter, Liberators, pp. 185, 195-196. 40. Moore, To Serve My Country, p. 13. 41. Lucia M. Pitts, One Negro WAC's Story (Los Angeles, 1968; privately published, copy in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley), p. 4; Martha S. Putney, When the Nation Was in Need: Blacks in the Women's Army Corps During World War II (Metuchen, N.J., 1992), pp. 100-101; Charity Adams Early, One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (College Station, Tex., 1989), p. 151. 42. Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks, p. 314; Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), p. 233; A. Philip Randolph, "Let the Negro Speak," in The Black Worker, March 1941. A. Philip Randolph, "The Call to the March on Washington," in The Black Worker, July 1941. 43. Jervis Anderson, A. Philip Randolph: A Biographical Portrait (Berkeley, 1986), pp. 256-257. 44. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Executive Order 8802, in The Federal Register, 6 (July 27, 1941). 45. Karen Tucker Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired: Black Women Workers During World War 11," in Journal of American History, vol. 69, no. 1, June 1982, pp. 84-85; Richard Polenberg, One Nation Divisible: Class, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States Since 1933 (New York, 1980), p. 75. 46. Eugene Katz to Cornelius Du Bois, July 14, 1942, Special Services Division, Office of War Information, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Anderson, "Last Hired, First Fired," pp. 82, 87; Mary Anderson, "Negro Women on the Production Front," Opportunity: Journal of Negro Life, vol. 21, 1943, p. 38. 4 7. Miriam Frank, Marilyn Ziebarth, and Connie Field, The Life and Times of Rosie the Riveter: The Story of Three Million Working Women During World War II (Emeryville, Calif., 1982), pp. 49, 54. 48. Sherna Berger Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War, and Social Change (New York, 1987), pp. 37, 38, 23. 49. Carl T. Rowan, Dream Makers, Dream Breakers: The World of Thurgood Marshall (New York, 1993), pp. 98-99. 50. "Special Report on Negro Housing Situation in Detroit," March 5, 1942, marked "Confidential," prepared by Nelson Foote, Office of Facts and Figures, Bureau oflntelligence, National Archives, Washington, D.C. 51. Chicago Defender, June 26, 1943; Nat Brandt, Harlem at War: The Black Experience in WWII (Syracuse, 1996), p. 151; Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (New York, 1994), p. 447.

52. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., Marching Blacks (New York, 1945), p.125. 53. Lonnie Quan, interview, October 15, 1982, Chinese Women of America Research Project, Chinese Culture Foundation of San Francisco, p. 11. 54. Victor and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ': A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York, 1972), pp. 154-155; Diane Mark and Ginger Chih, A Place Called Chinese America (Dubuque, Iowa, 1982), pp. 97-98. 55. Rose Hum Lee, "Chinese in the U.S. Today: The War Has Changed Their Lives," Survey Graphic, October 1942, p. 419; "Give 'Em Wings: The Story of the Part Played in Aircraft by L.A. Chinese," Chinese Press, April 2, 1943; Arthur Wong, oral history, in Joan Morrison and Charlotte Fox Zabusky, American Mosaic: The Immigrant Experience in the Words of Those Who Lived It (New York, 1980), p. 78. 56. "All Chinatown Responds to War Needs," Chinese Press, January 2, 1942, "Chinese Career Girls: They Help Run the Vital 'Behindthe-Line' Business of the United States at War," Chinese Press, May 29, 1942; "Women in the War," Chinese Press, March 26, 1943. 57. John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), p. 167; Fred Riggs, Pressures on Congress: A Study of the Repeal of Chinese Exclusion (New York, 1950), pp. 161-162. 58. Dower, War Without Mercy, pp. 164-169; Congressional Record, 78th Congress, 1st session, 1943, vol. 89, part 6, pp. 8580, 8581, 8597. 59. Lee, "Chinese in the U.S. Today," p. 444; Franklin D. Roosevelt, "Message From the President of the United States Favoring Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Laws," October 11, 1943, in appendix, Riggs, Pressures on Congress, pp. 210-211. 60. Roberto Haro, interview, July 25, 1998. 61. Richard Santillan, "Rosita the Riveter: Midwest Mexican American Women during World War II," in Perspectives in Mexican American Studies, vol. 2, 1989 (Tucson), p. 120; Raul Morin, Among the Valiant: Mexican Americans in WW II and Korea (Alhambra, Calif., 1966), p. 21. 62. Socorro Diaz Blanchard, Recuerdos (Memories), vol. 1, December 1992, unpublished autobiography, loaned to the author by her grandson, Sean O'Shea, p. 108; Patricia Preciado Martin, Songs My Mother Sang to Me: An Oral History of Mexican-American Women (Tucson, Ariz., 1996), p. 70. 63. Santillan, "Rosita the Riveter," pp. 124, 135. 64. Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (New York, 1968), p. 260; Morin, Among the Valiant, pp. 153-154. 65. La Opinion, June 1, 1945; August 15, 1945; March 25, 1945. 66. Martha Nakagawa, "Supporters Rally for Latino Legend Who Captured 1000 Japanese Soldiers," Pacific Citizen Weekly, August 6-12, 1999, pp. 1,8.

67. Morin, Among the Valiant, pp. 232-233; David Reyes, "Taking a Stand for a Peaceful Hero," Los Angeles Times, August 31, 1998. 68. La Opinion, March 21, 1942; Maria Herrera-Sobek, Northward Bound: The Mexican Immigrant Experience in Ballad and Song (Bloomington, Ind., 1993), pp. 147-148; McWilliams, North from Mexico, pp. 266-267. 69. Matt S. Meier and Felicino Ribera, Mexican Americans/American Mexicans (New York, 1993), p. 175; Erasmo Gamboa, Mexican Labor and World War II: Braceros in the Pacific Northwest, 1942-1947 (Austin, Tex., 1990), p. 62; Bracero, interview, in Henry Anderson, Fields of Bondage: The Mexican Contract Labor System in Industrialized Agriculture (Martinez, Calif., 1963), p. 53. 70. La Opinion, November 2, 1943; February 12, 1943; January 23, 1944. 71. La Opinion, April 1, 1942; Richard Santillan, "Midwestern Mexican American Women and the Struggle for Gender Equality," in Perspectives in Mexican American Studies, vol. 5 (1995), p. 95; Santillan, "Rosita the Riveter," p. 125. 72. Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War, and Social Change (New York, 1987), pp. 85-86. 73. Gluck, Rosie the Riveter, p. 85. 74. Gluck, Rosie the Riveter, p. 86; Santillan, "Rosita the Riveter," p.128. 75. Vicki Ruiz, From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1998), p. 82. 76. Santillan, "Rosita the Riveter," pp. 123-124; Santillan, "Midwestern Mexican American Women," pp. 98-99. 77. Harold Foster, interview, number 1164, American Indian History Project, Western History Center, University of Utah, p. 11; Bruce Watson, "Navajo Code Talkers: A Few Good Men," Smithsonian, vol. 24, no. 5 (August 1993), p. 40. 78. Jere Franco, "Bringing Them Alive: Selective Service and Native Americans," Journal of Ethnic Studies, vol. 18, no. 3 (fall 1990), p. 18; Evon Z. Vogt, Navaho Veterans: A Study of Changing Values (Cambridge, Mass., 1951), p. 64. 79. Kenji Kawano, Warriors: Navajo Code Talkers (Flagstaff, Ariz., 1990), p. 56; S. McClain, Navajo Weapon (Boulder, Colo., 1994), p. 38. 80. Cozy Stanley Brown, interview, in Broderick H. Johnson (ed.), Navajos and World War II (Tsaile, Navajo Nation, Ariz., 1977), p. 54. 81. Interview with Jimmy King, tape number 2, pp. 6, 8-9, American Indian Oral History Project, Western History Center, University of Utah. 82. Cozy Stanley Brown, interview, in Johnson (ed.), Navajos and World War II, p. 54; Isabel Simmons, "The Unbreakable Code," Marine Corps Gazette, November 1971, pp. 4-6.

83. Watson, "Navajo Code Talkers," p. 40. 84. McClain, Navajo Weapon, p. 180; Watson, "Navajo Code Talkers," p. 35. 85. Watson, "Navajo Code Talkers," p. 40. 86. Watson, "Navajo Code Talkers," p. 41; Claude Hatch, interview, in Johnson (ed.), Navajos and World War II, pp. 124-125; Keats Begay, interview, in Johnson (ed.), Navajos and World War II, p. 44. 87. Letter from Mrs. B, reprinted in Doris A. Paul, The Navajo Code Talkers (Bryn Mawr, Pa., 1973), p. 112. 88. Oliver La Farge, "They Were Good Enough for the Army," Harper's Magazine, November 1947, p. 445. 89. Alison R. Bernstein, American Indians and World War II (Norman, Okla., 1991), p. 152. 90. Kawano, Warriors, p. 16; Symposium on the Navajo Code Talkers, University of California, Berkeley, November 17, 1995; McClain, Navajo Weapon, p. v. 91. Rafael Medoff, The Deafening Silence (New York, 1987); Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (New York, 1981); Isaac Metzker (ed.), A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters from the Lower East Side to the Jewish Daily Forward (Garden City, N.Y., 1971), pp. 189-190. 92. David Brody, "American Jewry, the Refugees and Immigration Restriction (1932-1942)," Publication of the American Jewish Historical Society, vol. 45, no. 4 (June 1956), p. 241. 93. Ronald Sanders, Shores of Refuge: A Hundred Years of Jewish Emigration (New York, 1988), pp. 448, 449. 94. Saul S. Friedman, No Haven for the Oppressed: United States Policy Toward Jewish Refugees, 1938-1945 (Detroit, 1973), pp. 86-87; Haskell Lookstein, Were We Our Brothers' Keepers? The Public Response of American Jews to the Holocaust, 1938-1944 (New York, 1985), p. 43; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1939- 1941 (New York, 1985), p. 67. 95. Wyman, Paper Walls, p. 78. 96. Arthur D. Morse, While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy (New York, 1968), p. 256; Wyman, Paper Walls, p. 97; Friedman, No Haven, p. 102. 97. Marie Syrkin, "What American Jews Did During the Holocaust," Midstream: A Monthly Jewish Review, vol. 28, no. 8 (October 1982), p. 9; Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember (New York, 1949), p. 161. 98. Medoff, The Deafening Silence, p. 58. 99. Lookstein, Were We Our Brothers' Keepers?, pp. 84, 86. 100. Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America: Four Centuries of an Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1989), p. 293. 101. Lookstein, Were We Our Brothers' Keepers?, pp. 46, 65. 102. Medoff, The Deafening Silence, p. 64. 103. Henry L. Feingold, "'Courage First and Intelligence Second':

The American Jewish Secular Elite, Roosevelt, and the Failure to Rescue," in Verne W. Newton (ed.), FDR and the Holocaust (New York, 1966), p. 72. 104. Stephen Wise, Challenging Years: The Autobiography of Stephen Wise (New York, 1949), p. 227; David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (New York, 1984), p. 25. 105. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Sanders, Shores of Refuge, p. 515. 106. Wise to John Haynes Holmes, 1942, in Justine Wise Polier and James Waterman Wise (eds.), The Personal Letters of Stephen Wise (Boston, 1956), pp. 260-261. 107. Wise, Challenging Years, pp. 275-276. 108. New York Times, December 2, 1942, p. 24. 109. Morse, While Six Million Died, pp. 26-27. 110. Feingold, '"Courage First and Intelligence Second,"' in Newton (ed.), FDR and the Holocaust, p. 76; Medoff, The Deafening Silence, pp. 115, 121. 111. New York Times, May 4, 1943, p. 17; Monty Noam Penkower, "In Dramatic Dissent: The Bergson Boys," American Jewish History, vol. 7 (March 1981), p. 288. 112. Lucy Dawidowicz, "American Jews and the Holocaust," New York Times Magazine, April 18, 1982, p. 114; Morse, While Six Million Died, p. 92. 113. New York Times, January 23, 1944, p. 11. 114. Medoff, The Deafening Silence, pp. 143, 144; Wyman, Abandonment, p. 263. 115. Henry Feingold, "The Roosevelt Administration and the Effort to Save the Jews of Hungary," Hungarian-Jewish Studies, vol. 2 (1969), p. 231; Medoff, While Six Million Died, p. 145. 116. Jonathan Kaufman, Broken Alliance: The Turbulent Times Between Blacks and Jews in America (New York, 1989), p. 50. 117. Tanaka, Go For Broke, p. 117; "Report on Japanese Americans in Jerusalem, reunion between members of the 442nd Regiment and former Dachau inmates," CBS News, May 3, 1992. 118. Brewster Chamberlain and Marcia Feldman, The Liberation of the Nazi Concentration Camps 1945 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987), p. 36. 119. Chamberlain and Feldman, Liberation of the Nazi Concentration Camps, pp. 37-39, 98.

120. Medoff, The Deafening Silence. 121. Aaron Berman, "American Zionism and the Rescue of European Jewry: An Ideological Perspective," American Jewish History, vol. 30, March 1981, p. 316; Naomi W. Cohen, American Jews and the Zionist Idea (Hoboken, 1975), pp. 6, 31, 35; Henry L. Feingold,A Time for Searching: Entering the Mainstream, 1920-1945 (Baltimore, 1992), p. 185; Paul

Masserman and Max Baker, The Jews Come to America (New York, 1932), p. 334; Dawidowicz, "American Jews and the Holocaust," p. 48; Michael Beschloss, "A Case of Courage," excerpt from his book Presidential Courage: Braue Leaders and How They Changed America, in Newsweek, May 14, 2007, p. 34. 122. Robert Frost, Complete Poems of Robert Frost, 1949 (New York, 1949), p. 569. 123. Truman, Diary, in Robert H. Ferrell (ed.), Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (New York, 1982), p. 16. 124. Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (New York, 1977), p. 15; David McCullough, Truman (New York, 1992), p. 349; Margaret Truman (ed.), Where the Buck Stops: The Personal and Private Writings of Harry S. Truman (New York, 1989), pp. 221, 192, 58; Lisle A. Rose, Dubious Victory: The United States and the End of World War II (Akron, Ohio, 1973), p. 84. 125. Truman to Bess, June 22, 1911, reprinted in Robert H. Ferrell (ed.), Dear Bess: The Letters from Harry to Bess Truman, 1910-1959 (New York, 1983), p. 39. 126. Dower, War Without Mercy, pp. 217, 242-245; George E. Hopking, "Bombing and the American Conscience During World War II," The Historian, vol. 28, no. 3 (May 1966), p. 470; Truman, quoted in Barton J. Bernstein, "The Atomic Bomb and American Foreign Policy: The Route to Hiroshima," in Barton J. Bernstein (ed.), The Atomic Bomb: The Critical Issues (Boston, 1976), p. 113; Truman, Diary, in Ferrell (ed.), Off the Record, p. 53. 127. Truman, Diary, in Ferrell (ed.), Off the Record, pp.53-56. 128. Truman, Diary, in Ferrell (ed.), Off the Record, pp.53-56. 129. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1986), p. 742; Henry A. Wallace, Diary, August 10, 1945, reprinted in Michael B. Stoff, Jonathan F. Fanton, and R. Hal Williams (eds.), The Manhattan Project (Philadelphia, 1991), p. 245. 130. W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Winds of Time: Negroes War Gains and Losses," Chicago Defender, September 15, 1945; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (New York, 1965), p. v. 131. Abraham Lincoln, "First Inaugural Address," in The Annals of America, vol. 9, The Crisis of the Union: 1858-1865 (New York, 1968), p. 255; Francis L. Broderick, WE. B. Du Bois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis (Stanford, 1966), p. 196.

Chapter 15: Out of the War

1. Walter White, A ]!,ising Wind (Garden City, N.Y., 1945), p. 155. 2. Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (New York, 1971), pp. 224-229. 3. "Mela - Queen of the 12-Inch (Inland Steel Company)," in Mexican

American Harbor Lights, published by the Senoras of Yesteryear, Indianapolis Humanities Council, Indianapolis, 1992, pp. 34-35. 4. Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley, 1995), pp. 254, 259. 5. Brenda L. Moore, To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race: The Story of the Only African-American WACs Stationed Overseas During World War II (New York, 1996), pp. 12-13, 171. 6. Philip McGuire (ed.), Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War II (Lexington, Ky., 1993), pp. 248-251. 7. Frank Chuman, The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese- Americans (Del Mar, Calif., 1967), pp. 209-218; Kazuo Ito, Issei: A History of Japanese Immigrants in North America (Seattle, 1973), p. 585; Robert Wilson and Bill Hosokawa, East to America: A History of the Japanese in the United States (New York, 1980), p. 279; poem by Kiyoko Nieda, in Lucille Nixon and Tomoe Tana (eds. and trans.), Sounds from the Unknown: A Collection of Japanese-American Tanka (Denver, 1963), p. 49. 8. Congressman Robert Matsui, speech in the House of Representatives on bill 442 for redress and reparations, September 17, 1987, Congressional Record (Washington, D.C., 1987), p. 7584; Congressman Norman Mineta, interview, March 26, 1988; Warren Furutani, testimony, reprinted in Amerasia, vol. 8, no. 2, p. 104; Alice Tanabe Nehira, testimony, reprinted in ibid., p. 93. 9. "Text of Reagan's Remarks," reprinted in Pacific Citizen, August 19-26, 1988, p. 5; San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 1988, and August 11, 1988. 10. Richard Santillan, "Midwestern Mexican American Women and the Struggle for Gender Equality," in Perspectives in Mexican American Studies, vol. 5 (1995), p. 98; Rodolpho Acuna, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1981), p. 332. 11. Richard Griswold del Castillo and Richard A. Garcia, Cesar Chavez: A Triumph of Spirit (Norman, Okla., 1995), p. 87; Sabine R. Ulibarri, Mayhem Was Our Business: Memorias de un Veterano (Tempe, Ariz., 1997), pp. 115, 31; Richard Santillan, "Rosita the Riveter: Midwest Mexican American Women During World War II," in Perspectives in Mexican American Studies , vol. 2 (1989), p. 138. 12. Acuna, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos, p. 330; Mario Garcia, "Americans All: The Mexican American Generation and the Politics of Wartime Los Angeles, 1941-45," Social Science Quarterly, vol. 65, no. 2 (June 1984), pp. 282-283. 13. Carl T. Rowan, Dream Makers, Dream Breakers: The World of Thurgood Marshall (New York, 1993), pp. 102-103. 14. Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka et al., reprinted in Clayborne Carson et al. (eds.), The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader (New York, 1991), pp. 64-74; "The Atlanta Declaration" of the NAACP,

reprinted in ibid., p. 82; Robert Williams, quoted in ibid., p. 36; the implementation decision, in ibid., pp. 95-96. 15. Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (New York, 1981), pp. 41-42, 52; Stephen B. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound: The Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York, 1982), p. 84. 16. Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (New York, 1958), pp. 12-13; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, p. 16. 17. King, Stride Toward Freedom, pp. 47-48; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, p. 112. See Gloria Steinem, Revolution from Within (Boston, 1992). 18. Sitkoff, Struggle for Black Equality, pp. 86, 90; student quoted by James Farmer, in Francis L. Broderick and August Meier, Negro Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1965), p. 372; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, p. 154; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), p. 64. 19. Sitkoff, Struggle for Black Equality, p. 109; Fred Powledge, Free at Last? The Civil Rights Movement and the People Who Made It (Boston, 1991), pp. 256, 262. 20. Jervis Anderson, A. Philip Randolph: A Biographical Portrait (Berkeley, 1986), pp. 328-329. 21. Martin Luther King, Jr., "I Have a Dream," reprinted in Francis L. Broderick and August Meier (eds.), Negro Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1965), pp. 400-405. 22. Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America (New York, 1989), pp. 348-349. 23. Jonathan Kaufman, Broken Alliance: The Turbulent Times Between Blacks and Jews in America (New York, 1989), pp. 14, 17. For this discussion on Jews, I am indebted to this informed and passionate study of the Jewish involvement in the Civil Rights Movement. 24. Kaufman, Broken Alliance, pp. 20, 17, 28, 63, 64, 81, 91. 25. Kaufman, Broken Alliance, pp. 95, 83, 84, 96, 212; see Alan M. Dershowitz, Chutzpah (Boston, 1991), pp. 65-80. 26. Kaufman, Broken Alliance, pp. 96, 30, 63. 27. Kaufman, Broken Alliance, pp. 104, 130, 132, 77. 28. See Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation (New York, 1967); Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 1966); Martin Luther King, Jr., Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (New York, 1967), p. 55. 29. Lyndon B. Johnson, Commencement Address at Howard University, June 4, 1965, reprinted in Clayborne Carson et al. (eds.), The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader, pp. 611-613. 30. Kenneth B. Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York, 1965), pp. 1, 12 .. 31. Clark, Dark Ghetto, p. 10. 32. James H. Cone, Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare (Maryknoll, N.Y., 1991), p. 223; Martin Luther King, Jr., Why

We Can't Wait (New York, 1964), pp. 80, ix; King, Where Do We Go from Here?, p. 6. 33. Cone, Martin & Malcolm & America, pp. 1, 42, 213, 222. 34. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago, 1987), p. 109; King, Stride Toward Freedom, p. 72; Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York, 1991), p. 6; Leslie Dunbar, The Common Interest: How Our Social Welfare Policies Don't Work and What We Can Do About Them (New York, 1988), p. 103. 35. Dunbar, Common Interest, pp. 165-167. 36. John Reid, Black America in the 1980s, Population Bulletin, vol. 37, no. 4 (December 1982), p. 7; Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America: Plant Closings, Community Abandonment, and the Dismantling of Basic Industry (New York, 1982), p. 270; Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, pp. 12, 90-91. 37. Jimmy Morse, interview, in Dunbar, Common Interest, pp. 89-94; Illinois Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Shutdown: Economic Dislocation and Equal Opportunity (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 8, 32-34; Report of the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment, reported in New York Times, February 7, 1986; Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged. For the welfare argument, see Charles Murray, Losing Ground (New York, 1984). 38. Darryl Swafford and Danny Coleman, quoted in Jacob Lamar, "Today's Native Sons," Time, December 1, 1986, pp. 28, 29. 39. "The Economic Crisis of Urban America," cover story, Business Week, May 18, 1992, pp. 38, 40, 43; Gregory Lewis, "L.A. Riot Area Likened to Third World Nation," San Francisco Examiner, May 31, 1992; April Lynch, "Southland's Hopes Turn to Ashes: Promise Eroded by Recession, Ethnic Tensions," San Francisco Chronicle, May 22, 1992. 40. Langston Hughes, "Lennox Avenue Mural," in Langston Hughes, The Langston Hughes Reader (New York, 1958), p. 123. 41. "Beyond Black and White," cover story, Newsweek, May 18, 1992, p. 28. 42. Sa-I-Gu, documentary film, national PBS broadcast on P.O.V., September 10, 1993; Samantha Lee," 'Not Going to Let the Riots Beat Me': Sun Soon Kim" paper originally written for Asian American Studies 120, Berkeley, California, 1997, in Ronald Takaki, A Larger Memory: A History of Our Diversity, with Voices (New York, 1998), pp. 313-315. 43. Richard Rodriguez, "Horizontal City," This World, San Francisco Chronicle, May 24, 1992, p. 16; Martin Luther King, Jr., quoted in Willie L. Brown, "Riots Echo Decades-old Anguish of Dispossessed," San Francisco Examiner, May 3, 1992, p. A13; interview with Sister Janet Harris, in Los Angeles Times, May 13, 1992, p. Tll. 44. CBS, 60 Minutes, "The Model Minority," February 1, 1987; President Ronald Reagan, speech to a group of Asian and Pacific Americans

in the White House, February 23, 1984, reprinted in Asian Week, March 2, 1984; Ronald Takaki, "Poverty Is Thriving Under Reagan," New York Times, March 3, 1986. 45. William Broad, "Swords Have Been Sheathed but Plowshares Lack Design," New York Times, February 5, 1992, pp. Al, AB. 46. "$150 Billion a Year: Where to Find It," New York Times, March 8, 1990; Ann Markusen, "Department of the Peace Dividend," New York Times, May 18, 1992. 4 7. Broad, "Swords Have Been Sheathed."

Chapter 16: Again, the "Tempest-Tost"

1. Emma Lazarus, "The New Colossus" (1883). 2. James E. Young, "Living at the Scene of the Crime," review of Charles Hoffman's Gray Dawn: The Jews of Eastern Europe in the Post- Communist Era (New York, 1992), New York Times Book Review, September 6, 1992, pp. 12-13; interview with Soviet lawyer in Moscow, June 1990; interview with Barbara Budnitz, August 22, 1992; Steven Erlanger, "As Ukraine Loses Jews, the Jews Lose a Tradition," New York Times, August 27, 1992. 3. Interview with Safi.ya Shapiro (pseudonym), August 30, 1992. 4. Interview with Barbara Budnitz, August 22, 1992. 5. Interview with Sofiya Shapiro (pseudonym), August 30, 1992; interview with Barbara Budnitz, August 22, 1992. 6. Al Kamen, "Irish Will Win 'Green Card' Sweepstakes," San Francisco Chronicle, July 29, 1991; Richard Lacayo, "Give Me Your Rich, Your Lucky ... ," Time, October 14, 1991, p. 27. 7. Tyche Hendricks, "Irish Make Their Presence Felt in Fight over Illegal Immigration," San Francisco Chronicle, February 9, 2007. 8. David Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America (New York, 1985), pp. 83, 70, 67, 71. 9. Subi Lin Felipe, interview with author, July 24, 1988. 10. Wing Ng, in Thomas Kessner and Betty Boyd Caroli, Today's Immigrants, Their Stories (New York, 1981), p. 256. 11. Alexander Reid, "New Asian Immigrants, New Garment Center," New York Times, October 5, 1986; Kessner and Caroli, Today's Immigrants, p. 257. 12. Victor and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ': A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York, 1972), pp. 282, 285.

13. Karen Ringuette, "Asian Immigrants: Debunking the Myths," East/West News, October 23, 1986; Tom Wing Wah, interview, September 5 1982 Chinese Women of America Research Project, Chinese Cultural' Foundation of S~n Francisco, pp. 3-4. 14. Wei-Chi Poon, interviews with author, January 27 and February 2, 1988.

15. Student paper, name withheld, "Vietnamese Refugee," Asian American Studies 126, spring 1987, University of California at Berkeley, pp. 1-2; Thai Dang, interviewed by author, April 28, 1988. 16. Thai Dang, interviewed by author, April 28, 1988; Thich Nhat Hanh, "The Cry of Vietnam," in Thomas Bentz, New Immigrants: Portraits in Passage (New York, 1981), p. 145; William Liu, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, 1979), p. 78. 17. "New Immigrants' Quest: Refugees from Saigon," New York Times, July 2, 1986; Liu, Transition to Nowhere, pp. 21, 15, 19. 18. Liu, Transition to Nowhere, p. 55; Kenneth Skinner, "Vietnamese in America: Diversity in Adaptation," California Sociologist, vol. 3, no. 2 (Summer 1980), p. 105; Barry N. Stein, "Occupational Adjustment of Refugees: The Vietnamese in the United States," International Migration Review, vol. 13, no. 1 (Spring, 1979), p. 40. 19. Lesleyanne Hawthorne, Refugee: The Vietnamese Experience (Melbourne, Australia, 1982), pp. 97, 214, 221, 237. 20. Barry Wain, The Refused: The Agony of the Indochina Refugees (New York, 1981), pp. 72, 73; Michael Dorgan, "Attacks Leave Scars that Will Not Fade," San Jose Mercury News, April 10, 1987; Bruce Grant, The Boat People: An ''.Age" Investigation (New York, 1979), pp. 65, 66. 21. Tuyet Anh Nguyen, letter to the author, May 2, 1988; Chuong Hoang Chung, "The Language Situation of Vietnamese Americans," in Sandra McKay and Sau Ling Wong (eds.), Language Diversity: Problem or Resource (New York, 1988), p. 277. 22. Alan Hope, "Language, Culture Are Biggest Hurdles for Vietnamese," Gainesville Times (Ga.), March 31, 1985; Edward Iwata, "Ugly Tangle over Foreign Fishing Ways," San Francisco Chronicle, September 10, 1983, p. 28; Karen Ringuette, "Asian Immigrants," p. 9; Tricia Knoll, Becoming Americans: Asian Sojourners, Immigrants, and Refugees in the Western United States (Portland, Ore., 1982), pp. 196, 192. 23. T. T. Nhu, "Old Feuds Still Disrupt Peace Among Vietnamese," San Jose Mercury News, March 2, 1988; Katherine Bishop, "Refugees Press On with Vietnam War," New York Times, August 3, 1987, pp. 1, 8; Cheryl Romo, "The War Away from Home," In These Times, August 10-23, 1983, pp. 12-13, 22; Marvine Howe, "Vietnamese Celebrate Traditional New Year," New York Times, February 1, 1987; Joanne Omang, "Dreaming of a Return to Vietnam," San Francisco Chronicle, March 9, 1983; interview with Vietnamese woman, name withheld, field notes, February 27, 1988. 24. Thomas Bentz, New Immigrants: Portraits in Passage (New York, 1981), p. 154. 25. Student paper, name withheld, "Vietnamese Refugee," Asian American Studies 126, spring 1987, University of California at Berkeley, pp. 7-8.

26. Ashley Dunn, "Legacy Comes Home: The Land of Opportunity Offers Refugees a New Life," Seattle Times Post-Intelligencer, April 28, 1985. 27. Michael McCabe and L.A. Chung, "Facing the Hopes and Fears of Assimilation," San Francisco Chronicle, July 25, 1988; Knoll, Becoming Americans, pp. 188, 186. 28. Chuong Hoang Chung, interview, March 24, 1988; student paper, name withheld, "Vietnamese Refugee," p. 10. 29. Stein, "Occupational Adjustment of Refugees," p. 29; "Duke Points the Way to Little Saigon," East/West News, June 30, 1988. 30. Chung, "Language Situation ofVietnamese Americans," in McKay and Wong (eds.), Language Diversity, pp. 276, 285, 289. 31. Liu, Transition to Nowhere, p. 170; Anh K. Tran, "Adaptational Strategy of Chinese-Vietnamese in the United States," paper presented at the Fifth National Conference of the Association for Asian American Studies, March 24-27, 1988, Washington State University, p. 30; Julie Rees, "Striving for the American Dream," Long Beach Press-Telegram, May 6, 1985. 32. Patrick Anderson, "Asians Revive Tenderloin," AsianWeek, April 17, 1987; Raymond Lou, "The Vietnamese Business Community of San Jose," paper presented at the Fifth National Conference of the Association for Asian American Studies, March 24-27, 1988, Washington State University, pp. 3, 4; Judith Lyons, "72,000 Viets with 320 Firms Spark New Life in San Jose," Asian Week, June 19, 1987. 33. "'New Face of Asian Pacific American' Debuts," AsianWeek, May 8, 2003. 34. Afghan refugee, quoted in Melanie Gadener, "In Memory of My Father," Ethnic Studies 201 paper, Spring 2007, University of California, Berkeley, p. 6. Thanks to Ms. Gadener for letting me quote from the research papers she did in my seminars. Fariba Nawa, "Afghan Exiles-Grasping at a Thread of Hope," Pacific News Service, July 30, 1996. 35. Jonathan Curiel, "Afghan Angst: Bay Area Community Watches Taliban Depredations from Afar," San Francisco Chronicle, March 18, 2001. 36. Afghan refugee, quoted in Gadener, "In Memory of My Father," p. 4; Meg Dixit, "Stories of Afghan American Women," AsianWeek, May 17, 2002. 37. Farhad Ahad, "My Mother's Courage," in Afghan Journal: An Inter-Generational Afghan American Voice, Winter/Spring 2003 (San Francisco), p. 10. 38. Mother, quoted in Melanie L. Gadener, "Tragedy of the Running Brains: The Making of the Afghan Community in Fremont, California," Ethnic Studies 190 paper, Spring 2005, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 52-53. 39. Afghan refugee, quoted in Melanie Gadener, "In Memory of My Father," pp. 8-9.

40. Curiel, "Afghan Angst"; Julia Hollister, "Fewer Immigrants Are Choosing California," California Job Journal, March 21, 2004. 41. Curiel, "Afghan Angst." 42. Naseem Yar, interview, May 27, 2007. 43. Nadia Ali Maiwandi, "The Afghan-American Response," Afghan Magazine, January-December 2001. 44. Nadeem Saaed, e-mail to Professor Takaki, September 11, 2007. 45. Zarpana Reitman, interview, May 27, 2007. 46. Mohammad H. Qayoumi, "From Silk Road to Route 66: My American Journey," in Myron W. Lustig and Jolene Koester, Among Us: Essays on Identity, Belonging, and Intercultural Competence (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2003), p. 106. 47. Elizabeth Fernandez, "Afghan Cultural Issues Subject of Panel, Book," San Francisco Chronicle, June 24, 2007. 48. Tamim Ansary, speech, East Meets West conference, Fremont, California, June 23, 2007. 49. Nadeem Saaed, e-mail to Professor Takaki, September 11, 2007. 50. Nadeem Saaed, interview, May 27, 2007; Zarpana Reitman, interview, May 27, 2007. 51. Young man in the audience, East Meets West conference, Fremont, California, June 23, 2007; Fernandez, "Afghan Cultural Issues Subject of Panel, Book." 52. Fatema Nourzaie, e-mail to Professor Takaki, September 15, 2007. 53. Omar Nourzaie, conversation in Fremont, California, June 23, 2007. 54. "Immigration: Why Amnesty Makes Sense," Time, June 18, 2007, pp. 42, 39. 55. David Bacon, "What a Vote for Free Trade Means for the U.S.," San Francisco Chronicle, November 20, 2007. 56. Leo Chavez, Shadowed Lives: Undocumented Immigrants in American Society (New York, 1998), pp. 28, 34. 57. Chavez, Shadowed Lives, pp. 53, 63. 58. Linda Chavez and John W. Wilhelm, "Permanent, Not Temporary Workers," San Francisco Chronicle, May 10, 2007. 59. "The Border Is Not a Military Zone," San Francisco Chronicle, May 16, 2006. 60. Ronald Reagan, quoted in Fareed Zakaria, "America's New Know- Nothings," Newsweek, May 28, 2007, p. 39. 61. Hans P. Johnson, "Illegal Immigration," At Issue: Public Policy Institute of California, April 2006 (San Francisco), p. 10. 62. Claudia Diera, "My Story, Our History: From Mexico to Los Angeles," Ethnic Studies 195 paper, Fall 2006, University of California, Berkeley. 63. Jose Palafox, "A Song of El Norte: Camelia Palafox," in Ronald

Takaki, A Larger Memory: A History of Our Diversity, with Voices (New York, 1997), pp. 248-261, paper originally written in Ethnic Studies 195, Fall 1997, University of California, Berkeley. 64. Alexis Lopez, "Generaciones: A Mosaic of Mexican American Identity," paper for Ethnic Studies 195, Fall 2006, University of California, Berkeley. Interview with author, June 5, 2007. 65. Tyche Hendricks, "College Seems Out of Reach to Most Latinos," San Francisco Chronicle, June 24, 2007. 66. Cynthia Tucker, "An Investment in Our Future," San Francisco Chronicle, May 28, 2007. 67. Raul Reyes, "Latinos: Can You Hear Us Now?" USA Today, December 29, 2006. 68. Javier Erik Olvera and Mike Swift, "The Immigration Debate: 70 Percent of Mexicans in California are U.S. Citizens," San Jose Mercury News, November 5, 2007.

Chapter 17: "We Will All Be Minorities"

1. President Bill Clinton, "One America in the Twenty-first Century: The President's Initiative on Race" (Washington, D.C., White House, June 16, 1997). On July 10, Minyon Moore, deputy assistant to the president for political affairs, wrote to me: "Thank you for the valuable input you provided President Clinton in preparation for his speech on Race and Reconciliation in San Diego. The ideas you shared with the President meant a great deal to him." 2. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick (Boston, 1956; originally published in 1851), pp. 105, 182, 253, 322-323. 3. Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands, La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987), first page of preface, p. 87. 4. Gloria Steinem, Revolution from Within (Boston, 1990), p. 107. 5. Carlos Fuentes, The Buried Mirror: Reflections on Spain and the New World (New York, 1992), p. 348. 6. Reese Erlich, "Alice's Wonderland," an interview with Alice Walker, Image, San Francisco Examiner, July 19, 1992, p. 12. 7. Greg Mayeda, "Golf Phenomenon Asserts Mixed Race Identity," What's Hapa'ning: The Hapa Issues Forum Newsletter, vol. 3, no. 2, summer 1995 (Berkeley, Calif.). 8. Johanna Neuman, "Obama Decries Rash of Divisive Campaigning," San Francisco Chronicle, March 16, 2008; Jeff Yang, "Another First for Obama If Elected?" San Francisco Chronicle, July 21, 2008. 9. Paula Gunn Allen, interview, in Laura Coltelli (ed.), Winged Words: American Indian Writ~rs Speak (Lincoln, Neb., 1990), p. 17. 10. Interview with Toni Morrison, Time, May 22, 1989, p. 121. 11. John G. Neihardt (ed.), Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux (Lincoln, Neb., 1988), p. 43.

12. Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass and Selected Prose (New York, 1958), p. 10. 13. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston, 1989), pp. 88-89; Jack Weatherford, Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America (New York, 1991), pp. 210, 212; Carey Mc Williams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (New York, 1968), p. 154; Stephan Thernstrom (ed.), Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), p. 22; Howard Sachar, A History of the Jews in America (New York, 1992), p. 367. 14. Herman Melville, Redburn (Chicago, 1969; originally published in 1849), p. 169; also quoted in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York, 1992), pp. 116-117; Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass and Selected Prose (New York, 1958), pp. 284, 9, 10, 38. 15. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (New York, 1965), p. v; Abraham Lincoln, "First Inaugural Address," in The Annals of America, vol. 9, 1861-1865: The Crisis of the Union (Chicago, 1968), p. 255; Abraham Lincoln, "The Gettysburg Address," in ibid. pp. 462-463; Langston Hughes, "Let America Be America Again," in Langston Hughes and Arna Bontemps (eds.), The Poetry of the Negro, 1746-1949 (Garden City, N.Y., 1951), p. 106.